| 8748 God was also the «Place,» the omnipresent one who fills the universe; see m. " Abot 2:9,13; 3:14; t. Péah 1:4; 3:8; Sabb. 7:22,25; 13:5; Roš Haš. 1:18; Ta c an. 2:13; B. Qam. 7:7; Sank 1:2; 13:1,6; 14:3,10; Sipre Num. 11.2.3; 11.3.1; 42.1.2; 42.2.3; 76.2.2; 78.1.1; 78.5.1; 80.1.1; 82.3.1; 84.1.1; 84.5.1; 85.3.1; 85.4.1; 85.5.1. But his presence could dwell among his people in a special way (see comment on 1:14). 8749 Smalley, «Relationship,» 98. Some of the senses may be more instrumental than locative (e.g., John 4:23–24 ) or corporate than personal (e.g., Col 1:27; but cf. Col 1:29), but the basic correctness of Smalley " s proposal stands. 8750 See, e.g., Windisch, Spirit-Paraclete, 6 (hence the Spirit can complete as well as recall Jesus» teaching); Sanders, John, 333; cf. Turner, Spirit, 83. 8751 See esp. Bruce, «Spirit,» 51–52. The Spirit could teach through the prophets (4Q381 frg. 69, Une 4) and also empowered members morally and to seek God (4Q444 frg. 1,1.1; 4Q509,5.15–16). 8752 The clearest references for viewing revealed knowledge as a sort of prophecy in Grudem, Prophecy, 38–39 are mainly Amoraic, but a perusal of our material in Keener, Spirit, 12–13, will also show the difficulty of drawing a clear distinction between the two in the teachings of the sages. 8754 1 use this term advisedly, in a generic sense; the earlier expansions of biblical narratives do not easily fit the later rabbinic categories from which the standard terms derive; see Harrington, «Bible,» 242.1 refer to such expansions as Liber antiquitatum biblicarum (which only rarely adds entire stories, though it often adds details); Jubilees and parts of 1 Enoch; 4QAmram (see Kobelski, «Melchizedek,» 46–72); material in Gen 49 (Yadin, «Commentaries,» 66–68); Genesis Apocryphon; History of Joseph; Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs, Testament of Job, and Life of Adam and Eve (very expansive, even novelistic). Although the genre (Harrington, «Bible,» 242–43, argues that they do not comprise a distinct genre, but this appraisal depends on a narrower definition of «genre» than necessary) is common in the Scrolls, it is not limited to them (Milik, «Ecrits»). Midrash could exercise a creative function (Goulder, Midrash, 30), but the use of exegetical and haggadic traditions in these texts should not be underestimated (Harrington, «Bible,» 245–46; Fallon, «Theodotus,» 786). |
| 4448 B. Ta c an. 24a, a later story concerning a contemporary of R. Judah ha-Nasi. It was understood that cultural rules on how to drink wine varied regionally (Esth. Rab. 2:13). 4449 As the prototype of all who were from above, Jesus is perhaps the first «born from above,» i.e., from God (see comment on 3:3); but John in no way tones down the reality of Jesus» physical incarnation (1:14) through a human mother (also 2:12; 19:26). (Zumstein, «Croix,» in fact, thinks the mention of Jesus» mother emphasizes Jesus» incarnation; Augustine Tract. Ev. Jo. 8.6.2–8.9.4 argued this against the Manichaeans.) 4450 See Martin, «Epithet.» Beck, Paradigm, 17–26, argues that Greco-Roman literature rarely leaves important characters anonymous; but in Hebrew texts, see the women of 1 Kgs 17:9–24; 2 Kgs 4. 4451 See Beck, Paradigm, 132–36, though we would not accept all examples (e.g., the man in John 5 ; further, we accept some named characters, such as John the Baptist, as positive models). Beck, Paradigm, 53, sees the two most important characters in 2:1–4as women. 4452 Cf., e.g., Luke 14:12; Martial Epigr. 3.27; 3.37; 5.47; Chariton 2.7.4; probably Ps.-Phoc. 152 (see note i in OTP 2:579); dining invitations indicated status (e.g., Martial Epigr. 5.47; Ecc1. Rab. 1:3, §1), and social obligations could easily become overly demanding (e.g., Seneca Dia1. 10.14.3). Cf. Judge, Rank, 26; Stambaugh and Balch, Environment, 63–64; esp. Derrett, Audience, 43. 4454 Cf. Derrett, Law, 237–38. On the importance of wedding gifts, see, e.g., Pindar Pyth. 3.94–95; Theophrastus Char. 30.18–19. 4457 The wedding in Tob 9:19–20 was thrown by the bridés father because Tobias was far from home; but their marital dwelling then became patriloca1. The groom " s family was normally responsible (Safrai, «Home,» 760, citing m. Ker. 3:7; Sipre Deut. 107). 4458 At any rate, Seneca regards as self-evident that social tact includes giving someone a gift when that person needs it (Benef. 1.12.3), and some others may have shared his view. |
| Jesus tells his disciples about the betrayal beforehand so that, rather than doubting his foresight in choosing Judas, they will recognize him as a prophet and that he controls the situation (13:19; cf. 14:29). 8221 The fulfillment of a prophet " s words attests the prophet " s accuracy ( Deut 18:22 ). 8222 But Jesus» wording in several passages suggests an allusion to the promises of God in the biblical prophets: he foretold the future so that they might recognize his identity as YHWH (Isa 43:9–10). Similarly here, Jesus speaks so that the disciples might realize that «I am,» 8223 alluding to Isaiah " s «I am» formula, which perhaps by this period already appeared in the Passover haggadah. 8224 Likewise, Jesus had «chosen» them (13:18; 6:70; 15:16, 19) and «knew» those he chose. Rabbis rarely chose their own disciples (see comments on 1:38–43), yet in this context «chosen» suggests more than simply an unusually radical rabbi; it suggests that John again portrays Jesus in biblical language traditionally applied to God " s relationship with Israel (see comment on 15:16). Jesus then sounds an ominous warning in 13:20: Jesus is the Father " s agent (see introduction; cf. Matt 10:40); the disciples as Jesus» agents will face the same sort of suffering and betrayal Jesus faced (13:16,18,21). Whereas brokers of patrons could build their own power base in Roman society, the context promises Jesus» agents suffering and the status of servants. 8225 Interpreting the Washing in Light of the Cross (13:21–38) In the context of the betrayal (13:21–30) and another comment on the imminence of the passion (13:31–33), loving and serving as Jesus did demands sacrifice for one another, potentially to the point of death (13:34–35). On the narrative level, however, John emphasizes that such commitment is more easily offered than demonstrated: the most prominent disciple would fall short of even such sacrifice directly for Jesus (13:36–38). 1. The Betrayal Announced (13:21–30) The intimacy of the gathering implied by the seating arrangements (13:23) and perhaps by Jesus» expression of emotion (13:21) provides a model for believers» relationship with Jesus (14:23) and in the immediate context particularly underlines the heinousness of the betrayal (13:18). |
| 5806 The priestly Sadducean aristocracy appears to have clashed with both Essenes (lQpHab 8.8–12; 9.4–7; 12.5; 4QpNah 1.11) and Pharisees (Josephus Ant. 18.17; m. Yad. 4:7; t. Hag. 3:35; Nid. 5:3; " Abot R. Nat. 5A; 10B; b. Nid. 33b; Sukkah 48b). 5807 See Keener, Matthew, 351–54; cf. also Borg, Conflict, 139–43. 5808 Josephus Life 302; but this provoked a backlash of the common people in Josephus " s defense (Life 303). 5809 See Borg, Conflict, 145–62. Lightfoot, Gospel, 149, suggests that the imperfect verbs of 5and 5make this episode «representative of various conflicts» between Jesus and the authorities. 5810 Here, too, various views obtained (see the section on Christ " s deity in the introduction, ch. 7); but divergent views were usually expressed esoterically and cautiously lest they lend themselves to misinterpretation. Segal, «Ruler,» 253, thinks the debate about Jesus» deity argues against the narrativés historicity; again our introduction, ch. 7. 5811 Schnackenburg, John, 2:101. Contrast Pancaro, Law, 499–500. The righteous Messiah was expected to keep the law (4Q252 frg. 1, 5.3–5). 5812 Cf. Daube, Judaism, 60; Dalman, Jesus-Jeshua, 57; Flusser, Judaism, 495. 5813 On this misunderstanding as part of the larger pattern in the Gospel, see Lee, Narratives, 12–13, 113. 5814 Despite the term " s broad semantic range, the Gospel employs it only six times, so the three times it appears in conjunction with the law are most significant. The LXX is not helpful here; «loosed the law» in 1 Esd 9means «opened the [book of] the law.» 5815 Exegetes have long noted this Jewish teaching; see, e.g., Robinson, Historical Character, 38–39. 5816 E.g., Pesiq. Rab. 23:8; 41:3; see further Odeberg, Gospel, 202, listing and adding to Billerbeck " s references. 5817 Bonsirven, Judaism, 12, citing the popular morning Shemás first benediction. 5818 E.g., a third-century Palestinian Amora in Gen. Rab. 63:5. Some Amoraim claimed to study and emulate God " s creative activity (b. Sanh. 67b and comments in Neusner, Sat, 80). |
| 5899 E.g., 2 Bar. 51:1–2; cf. t. Ber. 6:6. For distinction after death, see 1 En. 22:9–11; cf. sources in Keener, Matthew, 129, on Gehinnom, and 710–11, on the resurrection of the dead. 5900 It appears in most streams of NT tradition and is denied in none: Acts 24:15; 2Cor 5:10 ; Rev 20:4–6; Matt 25:46; cf. Matt 5:29–30; 10:28; Luke 11:32; Bernard, John, 1:245. 5901 1QS 4.13–14; Gen. Rab. 6:6; most sinners in t. Sanh. 13:3,4; Pesiq. Rab Kah. 10:4; Pesiq. Rab. 11:5; cf. 2Macc 12:43–45. By contrast, the souls of the wicked will remain in hell on the day of judgment in 1 En. 22:13; 61:5; 108:6; 4 Macc 9:9; 12:12; t. Sanh. 13:5; probably L.A.B. 38:4; Ascen. Isa. 1:2; 3 En. 44:3; t. Ber. 5:31. 5902 Ps 62:12 ; Prov 24:12 ; Sir 16:12,14 ; Matt 16:27; Rom 2:6 ; 2Cor 11:15 ; Rev 22:12; Pesiq. Rab. 8:2; cf. Rhet. ad Herenn. 3.2.3. 5903 It continued in widespread use (Josephus Life 256; Ant. 4.219; b. Sanh. 37b, bar.; p. Git. 4:1, §2; cf. m. Roš Haš. 1:7; 2:6); see further the comment under 8:13. Early Christians also employed this rule; see 2Cor 13:1 ; 1Tim 5:19 ; Matt 18:16. 5904 Boring et al, Commentary, 270–71, cites Cicero Rose. Amer. 36.103. Witnesses confirmed a matter (Dionysius of Halicarnassus Lysias 26), and a claim offered without them might be scathingly contested (Lysias Or. 7.19–23, §110; 7.34–40, §111). 5905 E.g., Lysias Or. 4.5–6, §101; 7.12–18, §§109–110; 12.27–28, §122; 19.24, §154; 29.7, §182; Cicero Quinct. 24.76. Establishing a credible motive was standard procedure for the prosecution (Cicero Rose. Amer. 22.61–62). 5906 E.g., Isaeus Estate of Cleonymus 31–32, §37; Estate of Hagnias 6; Lysias Or. 7.19–23, §110; 7.34–40, §111; 7.43, §112. Cf. the preference for multiple and diverse testimonies, e.g., in Aelius Aristides Defense of Oratory 61, §19D; for challenging the credibility of opposing witnesses, see, e.g., Hermogenes Issues 45.5–10. 5907 Cicero Quinct. 23.75. 5908 The witness of one person was inadequate in many kinds of cases (Boice, Witness, 47, cites m. Ketub. 2:9; Roè Haï. 3:1); self-accusation, by contrast, could invite condemnation (Achilles Tatius 7.11.1; though in early Judaism cf. Cohn, Trial, 98). In some matters, however, onés self-testimony was held reliable (e.g., m. Ketub. 2:10), even against two witnesses (m. Tehar. 5:9). |
| 5110 E.g., 1QS lO.lff.;4Q180 frg. 1, line 2; 1 En. 1:1–3,8; 5:7–8; 25:5; 38:4;48:1,9; 50:1; 58:1; 61:4, 12; 93:2; Jub. 11:17; T. Job 4:11/9. Despite Josephus " s presentation of the Essenes (Josephus Ant. 18.18), even the Scrolls do not deny free will (Nötscher, «Schicksalsglaube»; Driver, Scrolls, 558–62; Marx, «Prédestination»; Sanders, Judaism, 251). 5111 Though in v. 11 some of them may have been «born» in darkness, with sufferings. Many ancients viewed character as inborn, not changed (Pindar O1. 13.12; also 11.19–20; but others recognized that character changed (Valerius Maximus 6.9.pref.–6.9.9; cf. 2 Chr 24:17–22). 5112 Neh 9:7; Jer 33:24 ; Sir 46:1 ; 2Macc 1:25; Jub. 1:29; 22:9–10; 1QS 1.10; 2.5; 9.14; 11.7; 1QM 10.9–10; 12.1, 4; 15.1–2; 17.7; lQpHab 5.3; 9.12; 10.13; 4QpPs 37 frg. 1; Mek. Pisha 1.135ff.; Sir. 9.118ff.; Gen. Rab. 1:4; cf. Urbach, Sages, 1:524–41. For individual Gentiles becoming part of that chosen people, see Jos. Asen. 8:9/11; for application of the title to believers in Jesus, e.g., Col 3:12; 2 Thess 2:13; 1 Clem. 50.7. 5113 E.g., Pss. So1. 9:4; Sipre Deut. 319.3.1; cf. Sirach in Boccaccini, Judaism, 105–9; Winston, «Determinism»; Philo in Winston, «Freedom»; Carson, «Responsibility»; Wolfson, Philo, 1:424–62; rabbis in Urbach, Sages, 1:268–69. Later rabbinic theodicy explained that Israel chose God (Sipre Deut. 312.1.1–2; Num. Rab. 14:10; see comment on John 1:10–11 ). See further comment on 6:43–44. 5114 Many Gentile thinkers (e.g., Epictetus Diatr. 1.6.40; 4.6.5; Marcus Aurelius 11.36; Plotinus Enn. 3.1) and early Christians (Justin Dia1. 141; 1 Apo1. 43; Tatian 8–11; Ps.-Clem. 12.3–4; 13.1–2) also argued for free will; earlier Greeks accepted human responsibility (Homer Od. 1.32–43; Chrysippus in Aulus Gellius 7.2; Aristotle E.E. 2.6.1–11, 1222b-1223a; Lucretius Nat. 2.225–265). 5115 E.g., Josephus War 2.162–163 (Pharisees); m. Abot 3:15/16; " Abot R. Nat. 37, 39A. Brown, Essays, 151–54, argues that even the Scrolls affirm both, though their double predestination deconstructs their logic for free will (in a way, he says, John does not, 154–55). |
| Just as «hearing» Jesus connotes «heeding» him (given a frequent biblical connotation of «hear»), so knowing him (10:14) connotes «following» him (10:27), that is, obedience (1 John 2:3). 7330 Temporary following, perhaps because one saw signs (6:2), is not what John means here, for it cannot yield life (8:21, 24); following means discipleship (1:37–38, 40, 43), implying a new kind of life (8:12) and following to the death (13:36), even as one of the sheep (21:19). The image of the lamb guiding and his people following also appears in Revelation 7:17; 14:4. That the sheep would recognize and follow the shepherd but not a stranger (10:5; in this context, the thief fits the normal behavior of sheep. 7331 Domestic animals like dogs were known to be more receptive to acquaintances than to strangers (Plato Rep. 2.376A). (Greeks could tell stories, however, of another learning an animal herder " s pipe tunes and luring away the animals.) 7332 Kenneth Bailey notes that when a family buys a new sheep from others, it remains unaccustomed to the new family " s cal1. Thus when the new shepherd calls and other sheep leave the fold, it remains behind agitated and stays hungry until it can be trained. It does not respond to an unfamiliar voice. 7333 On παροιμα in 10:6, see the introductory comment on the parablés genre above. Their misunderstanding (10:6, ουκ Εγνωσαν–they did not «know» his words), however, demonstrates that they cannot hear his message (8:43)–which in turn simply demonstrates that they are not his sheep (10:3–4). On John " s misunderstanding motif, see comment on 3:4. 3F. The Fold and the Door (10:2–3, 7,9) A first-century C.E. Roman writer compares a general guarding his troops with a shepherd who sleeps securely knowing that his flock is penned safely with iron bars, protected from the hungry wolves raging fruitlessly against the fortification. 7334 Ancient Jewish sources provide less detail than we might like, but reports of Palestinian shepherds from the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries may well preserve longstanding pastoral practice. It is unlikely that all sheepfolds were the same; variation in rank and resources would naturally produce somewhat different arrangements. One could build enclosures for sheep in various ways; one could use a cave ( 1Sam 24:3 ), 7335 a square hillside enclosure made of stone walls to keep out animals and winter wind, a roofed enclosure, or a temporary shelter using thorn-bushes for sides, or (as some think more likely here) «a yard in front of a house, surrounded by a stone wall which was probably topped with briars.» 7336 Such a sheepfold might have only one door, guarded by a porter and providing entrance to both the sheep and the house, 7337 or adjoining a house but with its own separate entrance. 7338 |
| For uses of the term, see 1:32, 33, 38–39; 3:36; 4:40; 5:38; 6:56; 7:9; 8:31, 35; 9:41; 10(cf. v. 38); (11:10); 11:54; 12:24,46; (14:10, 11 [εν]); 14:17, (20 [ν]), 23, 25; (15[ν]); 15:4, 5,6, 7, 9,10,16; (17:21,23,26 [ν]); 21:22, 23. The idea of the new covenant ( Jer 31:31–34 ; Ezek 36:24–28 ) and OT imagery for God " s indwelling (though, more commonly, his resting upon) are probably also relevant; for a complete discussion, see Malatesta, Inferiority, 42–77. 8411 The shift between God being their dwelling place and them being his is not particularly significant, since both communicate the idea of presence and relationship (though cf. also Pesiq. Rab. 21:10). 8412 B. Sank. 22a, attributed to Simon the Pious, says that this is the proper attitude for prayer (in Montefiore and Loewe, Anthology, 345, §907). See Abelson, Immanence, 377–79, for connections between the Holy Spirit and the Shekinah in rabbinic literature. 8414 McNamara, «Resting-Place»; cf. idem, Targum, 142–43. Glasson, Moses, 75, comments reservedly on the view that a paschal tradition is in view (Exod 23has a «place prepared,» but Oesterley " s connections to the paschal liturgy are not particularly convincing); but the woman in the «place prepared» in Rev 12 evokes more of the imagery of Sukkoth. 8415 Cf. the common use of makom, «place,» as a divine title in later rabbinic circles, signifying God " s omnipresence (3 En. 18:24; m. " Abot 2:9,13; 3:14; Sipra VDDen. pq. 2.2.4.2; 4.6.4.1; Sipra Sav M.Dpar. 98.7.7; Sh. M.D. 99.1.4, 5, 7; 99.2.2, 3; 99.3.9, 11; 99.5.13; Sipra Qed. par. 1.195.2.3; pq. 7.204.1.4; Sipra Emorpq. 9.227.1.5; Behuq. pq. 5.266.1.1; Sipre Deut. 1.8.3; 1.9.2; 1.10.4; 2.1.1; 11.1.1; 21.1.1; 24.3.1; 26.4.1; 28.1.1; 32.3.2; 32.5.8; 33.1.1; 37.1.1, 3; 38.1.1, 3; Keener, Marries, 150 n. 27). Patte, Hermeneutic, 25, points out that Torah is a «place» of God " s dwelling, a surrogate for God " s presence in the temple; but this view may have arisen only gradually after 70 C.E. and is less common than the more common use as a title for God. |
| 4004 Aune, Environment, 90 (citing Lucian Hist. 55; for disjunction, Polybius 38.5.1–8). Ovid is a striking example of arranging obviously disparate stories, sometimes in contrived ways, as if they happened sequentially (e.g., Metam. 2.708–713; 6.1–5 with 6.148–150); stories within stories (e.g., Ovid Metam. 4.37–388 within 4.1–415; perhaps Mark 5:21–43 ) were common. In Tannaitic texts, see Smith, Parallels, 131. 4005 Wiles, Gospel, 15. One who wished to harmonize could claim that John " s testimony in 1:32–34 can refer to a past event that could have been followed by a temptation, if (1) the Baptist could have uttered 1:26–27 on more than one occasion and (2) if 1is not his first encounter with Jesus (which the verb tenses in 1:32–34 may suggest it is not). 4006 E.g., Stanton, Jesus, 119–21; see comments in the introduction on genre. 4007 Dodd, Interpretation, 230–38; Barrett, «Lamb,» 218; cf. Sandy, «Affirmation.» Longenecker, Christology, 50, and Morris, John, 146, see this as the background for Revelation but not for John 1:29 . 4008 Cf., e.g., the arguments of Brown, John, 1:58–60; Schnackenburg, John, 1:299–300; Ridderbos, John, 72. 4009 The earliest supposedly non-Christian use of «lamb» for the Messiah is a Christian interpolation in Τ Jos. 19(Fiorenza, Revelation, 95; cf. Michaels, John, 17). A lamb does prophesy in Manetho Aegyptiaca Epitome frg. 64; but the connection with 1 En. 89–90 is at best weak. Likewise, even if Aries was considered a «lamb» in this period and a ruling constellation (Malina and Rohrbaugh, John, 49–50), a Palestinian Jewish prophet (applicable to both the Baptist and the author) would think more readily of sacrificial or paschal lambs. 4010 E.g., Wis 19(the redeemed Israelites leaped before God like lambs, praising him); cf. also Luke 10(cf. Matt 10in the context of 10:6) in the Jesus tradition. 4011 Minear, Images, 102–3; Hillyer, «Lamb»; Keener, Revelation, 187. 4012 E.g., Bernard, John, 1:44–46; Taylor, Atonement, 138–39; Schnackenburg, John, 1:300; Bruce, Time, 48–49. |
| 9748 See also Demosthenes Against Meidias 1,80; Euripides Herac1. 219; Plato Apo1. 32E; Dionysius of Halicarnassus R.A. 7.43.2; Sallust Speech of Gaius Cotta 4; Josephus Life 361; Acts 26:4–5,26. 9749 Plato Apo1. 33, in MacGregor, John, 331. Secretive action is hostile (Philodemus frg. 41.2–3). 9751 Brown, Death, 585; for unofficial blows for reviling leaders in another ancient Mediterranean tradition, cf. Homer Il. 2.265; on honor accruing to even a disobedient priest, e.g., Acts 23:5; p. Sanh. 2:1, §2. On the requisite formality with social superiors, see, e.g., Malina, Windows, 37–38. 9752 Even those in authority who struck soldiers for discipline (Xenophon Anab. 5.8.12–13) might afterwards need to justify it (5.8.18). One might interpret «giving» a blow (also 19:3) as a worldly parody of the «giving» motif in John (cf. comment on 3:16), though here it may be simply idiomatic (cf. Gen. Rab. 78:11). For ρπισμα, see Isa 50LXX. 9753 Deut 25:2–3 ; Josephus Ant. 4.238,248; m. Hu1. 5:2; Ki1. 8:3; Mak. passim, e.g., 1:1–3; 3:3–5, 10–11; Naz. 4:3; Pesah. 7:11; Tern. 1:1; Sipra Qed. pq. 4.200.3.3; Sipre Deut. 286.4.1; 5.1; b. B. Mesi c a 115b; Ker. 15a; Ketub. 33b; Pesah. 24ab; p. Besah 5:2, §11; Naz. 4:3, §1; Ter. 7:1; Yoma 77a; Pesiq. Rab Kah. 4:3. 9754 Cf. Brown, John, 2:827; Morris, John, 757 (citing the assault by the attendant in b. Sebu. 30b). 9757 Diogenes the Cynic, once accosted, allegedly complained that he forgot to don his helmet that morning (Diogenes Laertius 6.2.41–42). Jesus» answer with dignity here contravenes an inappropriately literalist reading of Matt 5(Vermes, Religion, 36; cf. idem, Jesus and Judaism, 53). 9759 Blinzler, Trial, 135, suggests that proper public trials required an advocate, which Jesus appears to have lacked; but he also concedes (pp. 142–43) that the Mishnaic rules are late. 9761 Josephus Ag. Ap. 1.191, citing Hecateus of Abdera; 2.218–219,233–235. They also would die rather than disobey their laws (1.212) and wanted to kill those they thought brought harm to the nation (Josephus Life 149). |
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