| 252 Из числа других отрывков, которые создают подобное впечатление, см. De Inst. Coen. 12.8 и Conlat. 11.13 в которых спасение связывается с нашим подражанием Христу. См. также Conlat. 21.32 где благодать связывается со стремлением к более высокой моральности, нежели моральность закона, и Conlat. 24.26 где сыновство по усыновлению связывается с отречением от мира для исполнения монашеского призвания. 253 Напр., Conlat. 3.10 где авва Пафнутий ссылается на Божий призыв к Аврааму как на модель для монашеской жизни. Ср. Conlat. 3.19 255 Подобное представление о благодати как о Божьем содействии также подтверждается тем, что в Кассиановом учении о молитве весьма заметную роль играют слова из Пс. 69:2 (69:1 – в Vulg.). Это представление о благодати как о содействии еще более заметно у Кассиана, когда он учит о молитве словами из этого Псалма: «Поспеши, Боже, избавить (assist) меня». См. Conlat. 10.10 256 Ср. De Inst. Coen. 6.5 и De Inst. Coen. 12.13 где подчеркивается, что способность человека преодолевать порок и достигать добродетели зависит от содействующей ему благодати Божьей. Ср. также De Inst. Coen. 5.16 и Conlat. 7.8 7.23 где утверждается, что Божья благодать с торжеством сражается за нас против порока и сатанинских сил. 257 Напр., Amann, ‘Semi-Pélagiens’, 1805; Holze, Erfahrung und Theologie im frühen Mönchtum, 155; Pristas, ‘The Theological Anthropology of John Cassian’, 144–8. 258 Ср. De Inst. Coen. 12.11 где говорится, что Бог прощает нас в ответ на исповедание в грехе, и особенно Conlat. 20.8 где описываются различные способы обретения прощения грехов. 259 Ср. De Inst. Coen. 12.11 где Кассиан пишет, что по Божьей благодати изливается дар преизобилующего прощения там, где произносится хотя бы одно слово исповеди. Amann, ‘Semi-Pélagiens’, 1804–5, отмечает, что в этом заключается главная идея Кассианова учения о благодати. 262 Brand, ‘Le De incarnatione Domini de Cassien’, 59. С другой стороны, Codina, El Aspecto Christologico, 187, утверждает в противовес Брану, что в представлении Кассиана аскетизм и мистицизм привязаны к личности Христа. Похожим образом утверждает и Azkoul, ‘Peccatum originale’, 40, говоря, что Кассиан отталкивается от христологических оснований, хотя под «христологическими» он подразумевает, что тот сохранил соответствующий синергизм между Божественным и человеческим действиями в личности Христа и в человеческом спасении. Это ставит Эзколя в один ряд с Лосским, Lossky, The Mystical Theology of the Eastern Church, 199, хотя Лосский не применяет слово «христологический» в отношении к синергическому пониманию спасения у Кассиана. |
| Более подробная дискуссия относительно недавнего сотворения земли принадлежит труду геолога Dr. John D. Morris, сына Dr. Henry Morris в его книге The Young Earth (1994). Написанная популярным языком для школьников, эта книга также содержит критику радиометрического датирования и вскрывает мистику рассуждения по кругу, которая типично используется эволюционистами при датировании находок ископаемых (стр. 13—16). Научный материал чередуется с занимательными историями о работе автора в качестве ученого креациониста, включая рассказ о его лекциях за время турне по университетским городкам и научно-исследовательским институтам в Москве в 1990 году, и о его приеме, оказанном с энтузиазмом студентами-биологами в России (стр. 23—24). In the Minds of Men. Ian Taylor (1984) — еще один полезный источник. В главе 11 автор погружается во многие научные области, относящиеся к возрасту земли, а также и в исторические данные. Рассматривая космологию древних цивилизаций — Абиссинской, Арабской, Вавилонской, Египетской, Индийской и Персидской — он обращает внимание, что ни одна из них не определяет возраст сотворения мира ранее, чем 7 000 до Р.Х. 6. О динозаврах В ходе дискуссии о Библейском учении о творении один из наиболее часто задаваемых вопросов касается следующего: «А как же быть с динозаврами?» В качестве введения ко взгляду с христианской точки зрения на эту проблему мы рекомендуем Dinosaurs (1991, третье издание, 2000) и The Real History of Dinosaurs (1991), обе книги написаны Dr. Mace Baker. Существует много размышлений и малоизвестных фактов относительно динозавров, которые нашли отображение в ряде источников креационистов: 1. Как и ископаемые находки других животных, появление ископаемых динозавров имеет характер внезапности в отчетах об ископаемых, без наличия эволюционных предшественников или переходных форм, соответствующих различным их родам. См. труд Russell М. Grigg «Dinosaurs and Dragons» (Creation Ex Nohilo, том 14, 3); Ken Ham стр. 19, 114 The Great Dinosaur Mystery Solved. |
| Central to the setting is the matter of ritual purification; John " s disciples disagree with traditional views about purification (3:25), as does the Fourth Gospel " s author (2:6; cf. 11:55). 5127 Yet his disciples, perhaps like some of his followers in the late first century, also held an inadequate view of purification; they may have seen Jesus as competition (3:26). As in 1:29–37 John again needs to point his disciples to the greater one (3:27–30). John, who offers the best form of Jewish purification, offers merely purification in water; Jesus offers a baptism in the Spirit (1:31–33; 3:5). 5128 That purification and baptismal questions are central to this section is clear from its unity with 4:l-3. 5129 Μετ τατα (3:22) is a frequent transitional device in John (5:1,14; 6:1; 7:1; 19:38; 21:1) 5130 and Revelation (1:19; 4:1; 7:9; 9:12; 15:5; 18:1; 19:1; 20:3) which also occurs seven times in Luke-Acts and on only two other occasions in the NT. 1A. Jesus» Ministry and John " s Ministry (3:22–23, 26) Regardless of the applicability to followers of the Baptist in the time in which the Fourth Gospel was written, a historical reminiscence likely stands behind the tension between John " s and Jesus» followers. 5131 The Synoptics allow for little overlap between John and Jesus, presenting Jesus as John " s successor and the fulfillment of his message. One might suppose that John, whose story world extends the ministry of Jesus to two or three years, overlaps Jesus and John the Baptist. For an apologetic against followers of the Baptist, however, the chronology followed in the Synoptic tradition would have worked well enough. (John apparently knew the tradition circulated through Mark and his Synoptic followers; 3seems to explicitly respond to it.) 5132 The Fourth Gospel thus allows the tension between the two movements to stand as early as Jesus» ministry, but clarifies the appropriate place of the Baptist movement through the Baptist " s own words. The Synoptics may well have suppressed the overlap as a potential embarrassment, 5133 although there is less evidence of tension with a Baptist community at that point. |
| Gossip networks were common, so it is not surprising that matters thought to be of interest were often reported to teachers. 5155 The Fourth Gospel recounts the disciples» report to John the Baptist, however, to provide the setting for John " s ready acknowledgment that Jesus holds the supreme authority (3:27–36). 2. Jesus Is Greater Than John (3:27–30) Ancient literature reports numerous rivalries, for instance among philosophical schools, dramatic poets, and politicians (see comment on 17:21–23); rivalries also appeared among first-century Christian workers ( 1Cor 1:11–12 ; Phil 1:15–17; 4:2–3 ; cf. Matt 24:45–51). But once past figures had attained the status of public heroes, the tendency was often to reduce the tensions between the schools. Thus Seneca the Stoic could explain that Epicurus was not so bad as Epicureans. 5156 Likewise, Aulus Gellius could point out that, despite the common belief that Plato and Xenophon were rivals, in reality their followers, out of zeal for their heroes, were rivals. Plato and Xenophon worked together, but their followers tried to show one or the other to be greater. 5157 It would not be surprising if some had made Jesus and the Baptist rivals, especially among the latter " s disciples who did not become part of the Jesus movement (see comment on 1:6–8); 5158 but John lays such suspicions to rest as in 1:19–36. John " s ambition was to fulfill God " s purpose as Jesus» forerunner, not to seek his own glory. 5159 (Just how pervasive this Johannine emphasis is may be surmised from the contrast with Q: whereas John in prison later sends disciples to confirm Jesus» identity, here he confirms it in response to his disciples» information.) 5160 He acknowledges that any significance in his own role is nothing but a matter of divine gift, hence not a cause for boasting (3:27). That a divine gift was not appropriate grounds for self-boasting was often recognized (cf. 1Cor 4:7 ). 5161 «Heaven» was a Jewish surrogate title for God, 5162 but like «above» (3:5), again reiterates John " s vertical dualism, which emphasizes in turn the infinite distance between God and humanity crossed only in Christ (1:51). In contrast to John, Jesus not only receives from heaven but is from heaven (3:12–13); the rest of the Gospel indicates that what the Father gave Jesus, in fact, was authority over all (3:35; 5:27; 13:3; 17:2), especially those the Father had «given» to him (6:39; 10:29; 17:2, 9; 18:9). John reiterates his earlier claim (1:20–27; see comment there) that he was merely sent before the Messiah (3:28). |
| 3. The Purpose of John " s Baptism (1:25–26, 31) The Baptist is significant not only in directly introducing Jesus, but also in functioning as the first foil against Jesus in a water symbolism employed throughout the Gospel narrative; he introduces a baptismal (3:22, 23, 26; 4:1, 2; 10:40) and more general water motif (2:7,9; 3:5,23; 4:7,10,11,13,14,46; 5:2; 7:38; 13:5; 19:34). 3891 John " s questioners ask why he would baptize if he is not the Messiah, Elijah, or the prophet (1:25), which might presuppose broader knowledge of a messianic baptism. It is possible that they had already heard of John " s message of a coming Spirit-baptizer. Though the Gospel " s audience has not yet heard this promise in the course of the Gospel " s narration, 1may suggest that John already had this revelation, and it is likely that the Gospel " s audience had heard of it (cf. Acts 1:5; 11:16; 19:2; 1Cor 12:13 ). 3A. The Function of Baptism in This Gospel Given Josephus " s testimony, scholars scarcely ever doubt that John baptized in water; 3892 the significance of this record for the Fourth Gospel, however, is more open to question. As an indispensable substance, appreciation for which was heightened in ancient agrarian societies by the effects of drought, 3893 water had lent itself to frequent figurative usages, for example, as a symbol for life, 3894 or perhaps as an image for oracular speech. 3895 Philo read the four rivers in Genesis as the four virtues flowing from του θβου λγου, 3896 and both he 3897 and Ben Sira 3898 depict divine Wisdom as water. Later rabbis likewise spoke of Wisdom, 3899 Torah, and teaching as water 3900 or a well, 3901 and heresy as bad water 3902 (although they also compared Torah with honey and other sustaining materials). 3903 Rabbinic texts occasionally also compare the Spirit with water, 3904 as does John (7:37–39; see comments on 3:5). Some have taken water to represent baptism in John and have read it as indicating a sacramental element in Johannine theology; 3905 others read the Gospel in an antisacramental light. 3906 Kysar thinks that sacramental interpreters presuppose a more widespread emphasis on sacraments in the late-first-century church than has been substantiated. 3907 Commentators who support an antisacramental view vary in their proposed object of antisacramental polemic: MacGregor feels that John is polemicizing against the sacramentalism of the Mysteries, which he feels retained a strong hold on early Christian converts. 3908 It should be noted, however, that the allegedly « " sacramental» cults» could involve ecstasy, 3909 and thus that an opposition of sacrament and πνεμα (if the Johannine Christians could associate the latter with ecstatic inspiration) might not be as useful in opposing such sacramentalism as MacGregor hopes. Bultmann suggests a polemic against John " s baptism, due to continuing rivalry with the Baptist sect. 3910 |
| Craig S. Keener The passion. 18:1–19:42 THE «HOUR» JESUS ANNOUNCED as early as 2has arrived; Jesus is the paschal lamb that John announced in 1:29. Peter Ellis suggests that John " s Passion Narrative fits a chiastic structure, as follows: 9506 A Arrested in a garden, bound and led to trial (18:1–12) Β True high priest tried; beloved disciple present (18:13–27) C Jesus, king of Israel, judged by Pilate, rejected by his people (18:28–19:16) B» True high priest carries wood of his own sacrifice (like Isaac); beloved disciple present (19:17–30) Á Bound with burial clothes, buried in a garden (19:31–42) Because many of the features on which he focuses to achieve this structure are so secondary and because the units may be adapted to suit the proposed structure, the suggested chiasmus ultimately proves less than persuasive. It does, however, evidence some patterns that point to the narrative artistry of their designer. More persuasive is the observation by Ellis and others that irony pervades the narrative. Thus Judas who went forth into «the night» in 13now returns in darkness to arrest the light of the world; Pilate the governor questions if Jesus is a king when the readers know that he is; Pilate demands, «What is truth?» when the readers know that Jesus is (14:6); the soldiers hail Jesus as «king of the Jews» in mockery, unaware that Jesus truly is the king of Israel (1:49), whose lifting up on the cross must introduce his reign. 9507 Historical Tradition in the Passion Narrative We must address some preliminary issues concerning John " s narratives and the history behind them (especially as preserved in the Synoptics) before examining the specific texts in John 18–19 . 9508 Where John diverges from the traditions reported in the Synoptics, we do think likely that John adapts rather than contradicts the passion sequence on which they are based, probably at least sometimes on the basis of other traditions and probably at least sometimes for a measure of theological symbolism. Although, on the whole, we think John essentially independent from the Synoptics, the Passion Narrative is different; John " s audience probably already knows the basic passion story from other sources (cf. 1Cor 11:23–25 ). Their prior knowledge would not render John " s version of the story any less intriguing to his audience, however: stories were told repeatedly in the ancient Mediterranean, and a good story could build suspense even if one knew the final outcome. 9509 John " s very adaptations, at least wherever they might diverge from the traditions commonly known among his ideal audience, invite his audiencés special attention. Where theological symbolism guides his adaptations, it is generally in the service of Christology: Jesus is the Passover lamb (cf. 1:29), who lays down his life freely (10:17–18). 1. The Genre of the Passion Narratives |
| Jesus declares, «It has been finished!» (19:30), and John reminds his audience that the Sabbath began at sundown that evening (19:31). (John does not invent this Sabbath tradition–cf. Mark 15:42 –but may make theological use of it.) 10219 Or Jesus may have «finished» «preparing» dwelling places for believers (14:2–3); or «finished» may signify the fulfillment of Scripture (19:28) and Jesus " word (18:32). 10220 5C. Handing Over His Spirit (19:30b) Jesus bows his head, perhaps as a matter of mortal weakness (cf. 4:6) but, on the Johannine level, perhaps as an authoritative nod of approva1. 10221 What invites more comment is what follows: Jesus «gave his spirit.» John probably intends «finish» to include the work of redemption (cf. 1:29). One suggestion that might support this probability is the appearance of John " s verb for the surrender of Jesus» spirit, παραδδωμι, twice in the LXX of Isa 53(παρεδθη). 10222 By itself, such an observation would remain insignificant; the verb is frequent elsewhere. But John elsewhere portrays Jesus» death in servant language, especially «glorified» and «lifted up» (Isa 52LXX), and his proclivity toward double entendres commends for us the possibility that he reads the «betrayals» of the Passion Narrative in light of Isaiah. In Isaiah LXX as elsewhere in the Passion Narrative, the «handing over» is in the passive voice; here Jesus takes the lead in his death, consistent with John " s Christology and view of Jesus» «hour» and submission to the Father " s wil1. Although the departure (often breathing out) of onés spirit appears frequently in ancient texts as a euphemism for death, 10223 that Jesus gave up his spirit (19:30) is theologically significant. In Mark " s tradition, Jesus breathed his final «breath» (εξπνευσεν, Mark 15:37 ); here he hands over his «spirit» (πνεμα, John 19:30 ), suggesting a Johannine twist on a more familiar tradition. (What John would add to Mark may also stem from tradition; see Luke 23:46, where Jesus «commits» his «spirit» to God before «breathing» his last breath.) The text does not clarify to whom Jesus hands over his spirit; probably the term for «hand over» here is employed for its symbolic value (see below; cf. 18:2, 30; 19:16) rather than with an indirect object in view, but if an indirect object is implied, it must be the Father (Luke 23:46). This image of handing over his spirit to his Father could evoke the Roman custom in which the nearest kin would receive in the mouth the dying person " s final breath to ensure the survival of that person " s spirit (spiritum). 10224 But the custom seems to have been a local Italian one largely removed from John " s eastern Mediterranean audience, 10225 and in any case, a more typical Johannine image is likely. |
| The final verses of the section wrap it up, again emphasizing the division among the people (7:43; 9:16). John writes not to an audience alienated from its Jewish heritage, but to one Jewish group alienated from other Jewish groups. Some wished to seize Jesus (10:39); others believed him because of his works and the Baptist " s witness (10:41–42), as Jesus had requested (10:38). This concluding cap to the section also provides a geographical transition (10:40), allowing John to move into ch. 11 and the following passion materia1. Jesus returned to the area where John had been preparing the way (1:23), especially in Perea (10:40), 7531 and Jesus «remained» there (10:40; cf. 1:39; 11:6) safe from his opponents (10:39) until it was time for him to return to Judea to face death there (11:7–10). This passage attests the effectiveness of Johns «witness» so heavily emphasized in the Gospel (1:6–8, 15); here, where John had been preaching, Jesus was temporarily safe from his Judean opposition, and many believed him through John s earlier testimony (10:41–42). (This was a region controlled by Herod Antipas, but Antipas apparently interfered with John only when he became a political threat, 7532 and Antipas does not figure in the Fourth Gospe1.) Although the crowds must have known some of Johns testimony about Jesus (5:33), most of Johns denials and confessions in 1:19–36 and 3:27–36 were only to his inquirers or to the disciples; nevertheless, these texts probably functionally supply the reader with what the author wishes to emphasize as the substance of the Baptists testimony. Again, however, the author contrasts the forerunner and Jesus: John did no signs, but properly attested Jesus» identity (10:41). That many believed in Jesus in Perea (10:42) is a positive note, but previous texts supply an ominous warning that such faith must be proved through perseverance (2:23–25; 8:30–31). 7449 The Greek term here (εγκανια) means «renewal» and appears in the LXX for rededications; it also vaguely resembles the sound of «Hanukkah,» «dedication,» also used of consecration in the MT (Brown, John, 1:402; Moore, Judaism, 2:49). |
| 3432 Dyer, «Light,» parallels the verb with «knew,» etc., and reads it, «appreciated.» Medieval Kabbalah also declares that true light cannot be comprehended (Ginsburg, Kabbalah, 127). 3433 Cf. Burney " s unlikely suggestion (Origin, 29–30) that this verb (and possibly its occurrence in 12:35) represents a mistranslation of the Aramaic, confusing the apWel («darken») with the páel ( " receive, take»). 3435 Sanders, John, 73; Barrett, «κατλαβεv,» 297; Lightfoot, Gospel, 89; cf. Bury, Logos-Doctrine, 27. «Darkness» could symbolize ignorance (e.g., Valerius Maximus 7.2.ext.la; Maximus of Tyre Or. 29.5). 3440 Cf. Hooker, «Baptist,» 358. Miller, Salvation-History, 4, 88, thinks 1:6–8 may have been the Gospel " s original beginning; but this misses the connection with «light,» which precedes. The suggestion of Teeple, Origin, 133, that the Baptist insertions in the prologue have a different author from that of John 21 , the epilogue, because the names are anarthrous in the prologue, fails if the insertions connect to the text of 1:19–36, where articular forms prevai1. 3441 Mark also domesticates the Baptist as a witness to Jesus, though not as rigidly as John; cf., e.g., Marxsen, Evangelist, 33; Trocmé, Formation, 55. 3442 Cf. Strachan, Gospel, 70. Burkitt, Gnosis, 97, even contended that the Fourth Gospel " s original readers knew of John but were just learning of Jesus (though they had previously heard of him). 3443 Kraeling, John, 107–8. Reitzenstein " s other primary argument for Mandean doctrinés dependence on the Baptist, the alleged priority of the heavenly-man myth before Daniel, is even more clearly without foundation. 3447 Many scholars contend that Jesus was, or probably was, a disciple of the Baptist (e.g., Sanders, Jesus and Judaism, 91). While this may be true (see comment on 3:23–24), arguing that it is the case on the basis of the Gospels and Acts striving so hard to subordinate the Baptist (ibid.) may be like claiming that because the evidence so strongly favors position A, position A must be a falsification; Sanders " s arguments on p. 92 are better. (Some of his contrasts between Jesus and John, however, are less reasonable, apart from John " s asceticism and Jesus» eating and drinking; in the temptation narrative, Jesus fasted like John " s disciples; John " s mission included sinners by repentance; the separation of wheat from chaff resembles judgment language common to both.) |
| The question whether John intends 20:19–23 as an equivalent to Lukés Pentecost presupposes the question whether he knows about Lukés version of Pentecost. Although other early Christian writers attest the Spirit empowerment of early Christianity (e.g., Rom 5:5 ; Tit 3:5 ), they do not comment on the time at which it occurred. Still, an association with Pentecost probably precedes the writing of Luke-Acts. Early Judaism connected Pentecost with covenant renewal 10657 and, especially prominent in the rabbis, the giving of Torah. 10658 Some have therefore concluded that Luke connects the outpouring with specific aspects of that festiva1. 10659 Intriguing as such a connection would prove, however, it appears tenuous; possible as it was in pre-Lukan tradition, it receives little emphasis in Acts 2, 10660 which suggests that Luke already had tradition of an outpouring of the Spirit on the church on its first Pentecost. Given the connections I believe existed among early Christian communities (see introduction, esp. pp. 41–42), I do think it likely that John knew of a story of Pentecost such as appears in Acts, whether through pre-Lukan tradition or tradition stemming from Acts. Even if Lukés tradition were widespread in the early church, however, and even if it were therefore likely that John and his audience knew the tradition of Pentecost, it would not be necessary to assume that John is directly adapting or reacting against the Pentecost tradition. John completes his Gospel in ch. 21; if he is to narrate any fulfillment of his Paraclete promises that provide continuity between the missions of Jesus and his followers, he must do so here. Further, John " s theology necessitates a close connection between the passion/resurrection and the giving of the Spirit (7:39); indeed, he may report a proleptic «giving of the Spirit» at both Jesus» death (19:30) and his resurrection appearance (20:22). 10661 Even if the giving of the Spirit in the tradition behind 20represents merely a symbolic or partial impartation, it must bear in John " s narrative the full theological weight equivalent to Lukés Pentecost. 10662 |
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