| Although the spirit of the Non-Possessors was never totally eliminated from the life of the Russian people, it was the way of the Possessors which would dominate Russian ecclesiastical and national development until the early 19th century. Other Developments in the West Besides the Conciliar Movement, other movements grew among various elements of the population in Western Europe, many of which contributed in one way or another to the outbreak of the Protestant Reformation early in the following century. One particularly noteworthy “proto-Reformer” was the Bohemian (Czech) churchman and patriot, Jan Hus (c. 1372–1415). Greatly influenced by the writings of the Englishman John Wycliffe (d. 1384), he preached in the Czech language, including making vitriolic denunciations of the widespread immorality of the clergy. He urged that the liturgy be celebrated in the vernacular languages and that the cup no longer be withheld from the laity in the Eucharist. He also advocated a conciliar view of Church government. For these reasons (all of which Orthodox Christians would affirm), and because he was perceived as a political threat, he was burned at the stake by the Council of Constance on July 6, 1415. The Brethren of the Common Life continued to flourish, especially in providing free education in many parts of the Netherlands and Germany. Thomas à Kempis (c. 1380–1471), author of The Imitation of Christ, a devotional book immensely popular to this day, was one of its more famous members. In the 15th century the Renaissance was in full swing in Western Europe, with its center at Florence, where the arts were greatly encouraged through the lavish patronage of the famous Medici family. The paintings of Fra Angelico (c. 1395–1455) of Florence, a devout Dominican monk, reveal the growing extent to which Western religious art was abandoning traditional iconographic styles for much more humanistic portrayals. The seminal work of the celebrated sculptor Donatello (c. 1385–1466) greatly promoted sculpture (which by its three-dimensional nature is more humanistic than iconography) as a vehicle for religious art. |
| Catherine of Sienna (c. 1347–1380), a remarkable Italian mystic, theologian, and advisor to Pope Gregory XI (r. 1370–1378), lived in the 14th century, as did John Wycliffe (c. 1330–1384), the forerunner of the Protestant Reformation in England. Other important mystical writers of this century were Walter Hilton (c. 1343–1396), Julian of Norwich (c. 1342-after 1416), and the anonymous author of The Cloud of Unknowing, all of whom were English. In Holland, Geert Groote (1340–1384) founded the popular and influential group of “secular” (i.e., non-monastic) priests and laity called the Brethren of the Common Life. This movement was part of a general revival and deepening of the spiritual life called the Devotio Moderna (Modern Devotion). The Dutch mystical writer Jan van Ruysbroeck (1293–1381) was probably the greatest representative of this movement in the 14th century. Emphasizing as it did the importance of Christian community, heartfelt devotion to Christ, and theological writing in the vernacular, as well as criticizing various abuses in the Church life of the time, this movement can be seen as a precursor to the Protestant Reformation. Dante Alighieri (1265–1321) completed his timeless masterpiece The Divine Comedy in the last years of his life. Also in the early part of the 14th century, the famous painter Giotto (c. 1267–1337) began the revolutionary devolvement of religious art in the West away from traditional Byzantine iconographic patterns and towards a more humanistic, naturalistic realism that remained prominent in Western religious art until the 20th century. Fifteenth Century The Great Schism in the Papacy, and the Conciliar Movement The West in the early decades of the 15th century was in turmoil over the relationship between the Papacy and Church councils. Some held that the Papacy was supreme. Others held that the authority of the Church councils supersedes that of the Pope of Rome. We have already mentioned the beginning of the Papal Schism in 1378, with two men claiming to be the legitimate Pope. In 1409, in order the settle the issue, the Council of Pisa met. This council deposed the two papal claimants and elected a new man, Alexander V, to be the true Pope. However, the two claimants, Gregory XII and Benedict XIII, refused to abandon their claims, so now there were three men claiming to be the real Pope. |
| There was another aspect of this general situation which should not be overlooked. Both religious groups in the West were interested in the witness of the Orthodox Church, which was regarded by all as a faithful representative of an ancient tradition. One of the matters of debate between Rome and the Reformers was precisely this: had Rome been loyal to the ancient tradition, or was it guilty of many unwarranted innovations and accretions? Conversely, was the Reformation really a return to the doctrine and practice of the primitive Church or was it a deviation from it? In this debate the witness of the Eastern Church was of primary importance. Like the great reforming Councils and Wyclif before him, Luther would on occasion invoke the Greek testimony to the fact of Roman departures from the tradition of the Faith. In the I6th and 17th centuries we find the witness of the Eastern Church quoted constantly by both parties in the Roman-Protestant controversy. Roman apologists would insist on the complete agreement between Rome and the East, recently consolidated by the Union of Florence. They would insist on the unbroken unity of doctrine between the two Catholic communions through the ages, in spite of the «schism.» On the other hand, various Protestant writers, and especially German Lutherans, would try to prove that the East was basically irreconcilable with Rome. They would point out that the very fact of the separation was the proof that the two Churches were not in agreement. The Protestants were always interested in the life and destiny of the Christian East. On the one hand, they were interested in securing exact and first-hand knowledge of the Turkish Empire, and especially of the Christian population in these conquered areas, for whom Western Christians could not fail to feel sympathy. On the other, Russia was becoming an increasingly decisive factor in the general shaping of European policy, especially in the East. Many books, of various types and of different degrees of competence, were written in the period after the Reformation on the life, doctrine, and ethos of the Eastern Churches, partly by travellers, partly by foreign chaplains and diplomats resident in the East, partly by scholars who could use not only written or printed material, but also information obtained from Greek exiles or from occasional visitors. No comprehensive survey of this literature exists; it was, nevertheless, of decisive importance in shaping European public opinion on oriental affairs. |
| This in turn would produce further distortions in Medieval and then Reformation theology. By the middle of the 12th century the Scholastic movement was breaking out into full flower. The visible expression of Scholastic theology, the Gothic style, was replacing Romanesque. It was clear that the West had embarked on a separate course of religious development, leaving Orthodoxy to the East. Of course we would not wish to make out that this Separation took place in some single event—it was a slow process. The uneducated peasants of the West preserved the Orthodox inheritance of the West for long years. The spirit of popular religion continued much the same. There were still those who lived theology, religious experience. In 14th century England, writings such as “The Cloud of Unknowing” indicate this. The same may be true of Jan Hus in Bohemia. In England Wyclif wrote: “The Greeks alone are faithful to Christ.” There were contacts later between England and the Orthodox Churches, in the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries. Bishop Ken, the Non-Juror, wrote: “I die in the Faith of the Undivided Church.” Others adopted a similar attitude and there were isolated instances of conversion or rather return to the Orthodox Faith. Orthodoxy, in some form or other, emerged now and again in various Western countries as a kind of life-giving, purely spiritual stream of light. On the whole, however, the history of the second millennium of Western Christianity has been the engrossing but tragic story of the reduction and fragmentation of Orthodoxy. The history of the post-eleventh century West is the history of the transfer of energy, faith and commitment from the spiritual realm to the fallen one. Orthodoxy constantly looks inside for answer to the problems of Christianity, whereas the West, since this period, has externalized its spiritual being, rendering its strength into the hands of the temporal. In the light of these considerations it seems that the only way out of this passe for a Western European is the adoption of the Orthodox Christian Faith. |
| Всякий, ненавидящий брата своего, есть человекоубийца; а вы знаете, что никакой человекоубийца не имеет жизни вечной, в нем пребывающей. 1 Ин. 3,15 Библию перевели на 700-й язык 06.10.2020 Количество полных переводов Библии за последние несколько недель достигло цифры 700, пишет СПЖ со ссылкой на Christian Headlines. Wycliffe Bible Translations и Американское библейское общество отметили эту новость, заявив, что это важная веха в продвижении Евангелия. Всего 700 книг включают полные Библии со всеми 66 переведенными книгами. Частичные переводы (например, Новый Завет) не включены. Джеймс Пул, исполнительный директор организации, занимающейся переводами Священного Писания, Wycliffe Bible Translators, отметил, что теперь «5,7 миллиарда человек, говорящих на 700 языках, имеют Библию на языке, который им лучше всего подходит. Это замечательная цифра, и она продолжает расти». В блоге Американского библейского общества сообщается, что количество полных переводов Библии Библией удвоилось за последние 30 лет – с 351 языка в 1990 году до 700 языков в 2020 году. Рост количества переводов Библии за последние несколько десятилетий ускорился благодаря достижениям в технологиях перевода и «беспрецедентным уровнем сотрудничества между агентствами по переводу Библии». Как сообщает Wycliffe Bible Translations, последними тремя языками на которые перевели Библию стали: уичоль (язык индейского народа, проживающего в Мексике), ломве (один из языков, использующихся в Малави, Мозамбик), а также язык нигерийского народа Игеде. Однако, несмотря на эти достижения, около 1,5 миллиарда человек – или каждый пятый в мире – по-прежнему не имеют Библии на своем языке, отмечают в Wycliffe Bible Translations. Благовест-Инфо / Древо-инфо.Ru Редакция текста от: 06.10.2020 20:59:46 |
| Throughout the 15th century the idea of a general council was constantly before the eyes of men. The Fathers at the Council at Basle had desired the participation of the Greeks, and had even sent a special message to Constantinople to invite the presence of a delegation – unsuccessfully, since Pope Eugenius IV was able to divert the Greeks to his own Council of Ferrara, later of Florence. But the clearest appeal to the whole of Christendom was made by a Western group which anticipated the Reformers of the l6th century, not only in a number of their convictions, but also in the hope that allies might be found among the Greeks against the nearer power of Rome. At Basle in 1434 the Hussites demanded that their cause should be submitted to a plenary council, at which the Greeks, including the Patriarch of Constantinople, and the Armenians should be present. 102 The extent to which John Hus himself was influenced by the Eastern tradition is still an open question. There is obvious exaggeration and bias in the contention of some early historians, 103 that the whole Hussite movement was a deliberate return to the Eastern tradition, which had once been established in Moravia by St. Cyril and St. Methodius. Hus himself can hardly have been well acquainted with the Orthodox Church, and derived his teaching mainly from Wyclif. On the other hand, it is interesting to note that Wyclif did on occasion invoke the authority of the Greeks, if only because they were opposed to Rome. It is certain that not all memories of the Slavonic rite had been obliterated in Bohemia. We may with confidence go so far as to say that some of the Hussites were interested in the Greek Church chiefly as an example of what might be termed non-Roman Catholicism, but also because in the teaching and practice of the Eastern Church they could find an extra argument in favour of Communion in both kinds 104 which to them was as the Ark of the Covenant. At a later stage of development, when it had become clear that there was no further possibility of reconciliation with Rome, there was a specially strong reason for an appeal to the East, in the hope of securing recognition from the Patriarchs, and so of dealing with the problem of a regular succession in the ordained ministry. |
| The Origins of the Christian Mystical Tradition (from Plato to Denys) Preface The origin of this book was a series of lectures on ‘Mystical Theology in the Fathers’ given in the Faculty of Theology at the University of Oxford. Shortly afterwards Mother Jane, SLG, very kindly asked me if I would repeat the course at the Convent of the Incarnation in Oxford for the benefit of those Sisters of the Love of God who wished to hear them. A gratifyingly large number did. Since then the lectures have been revised and rewritten and later stages of the book have been given as talks at the Convent of the Incarnation, and also to the Sisters of the Precious Blood, at Burnham Abbey. I owe a very great deal to these opportunities of sharing my thoughts with them and responding to their questions and criticisms. The circle of indebtedness extends much wider, but there are various particular debts of which I am especially conscious. In the chapter on Philo, I received help and encouragement from Dr C. T. R. Hayward, now at the University of Durham, and Robin Lane Fox, now at New College; Dr O. M. T. O’Donovan, now at Wycliffe College, Toronto, read an early version of the chapter on Augustine and made many acute and helpful observations; Sister Jocelyn Mary, SLG, gave me much help in understanding the doctrine of the Dark Night in St. John of the Cross. Naturally, none of them is responsible for the use I have made of their ideas. I was also greatly helped by being able to count on the accurate and intelligent typing of Mrs Anne Borg. But my greatest debt is to Sister Edmée, SLG, who has suffered all the stages of the fashioning of this book: I owe more than I can tell to her encouragement and criticisms, which have saved me from many asperities of style and obscurities of thought. The final form of the book retains one particular feature of the original lectures: extensive quotation from the philosophers and Fathers discussed. This was intended to give the original hearers some sort of feel for the thought and vision of these ancient writers. I beg the reader not to skip them: they are the most important part. |
| Сети богословия Тема недели: Почитание мощей в православии Статья Статья Статья Статья Статья Статья Статья Статья Статья Статья Мнение Мнение Статья Статья Статья Новые материалы 1 января Белл Р. Профессиональные интересы: Религия и наука, Библеистика Конфессии: Протестантизм Краткая биографическая справка: Профессор Ноттингемского университета. Специалист в области изучение диалога религии и науки. Изучал химию и физику в Лондонском университете (специализация - атомная физика). Затем обучался богословию в колледже Wycliffe Hall (Оксфордский университет). Докторскую диссертацию, посвященную богословию апостола Павла, писал в Тюбингенском университете. Преподает в Ноттингемском университете с 1990 г. Академические интересы: богословие апостола Павла, диалог религии и науки. Библиография работ автора: Другие публикации на портале: © 2007-2024 Портал Богослов.Ru. Издатель: БОГОСЛОВ.RU Адрес издателя: 141300 Московская область, город Сергиев Посад, территория Троице-Сергиевой Лавры. Все права защищены. Свидетельство о регистрации СМИ Эл ФС77-46659 от 22.09.2011 При копировании материалов с сайта ссылка обязательна в формате: Источник: Портал Богослов.Ru . Мнение редакции может не совпадать с мнением авторов публикаций. Редакция открыта к сотрудничеству и готова обсудить предложения. |
| Всякий, ненавидящий брата своего, есть человекоубийца; а вы знаете, что никакой человекоубийца не имеет жизни вечной, в нем пребывающей. 1 Ин. 3,15 Новый Завет переведен на язык цыган синти 22.03.2011 Книги Нового Завета переведены на язык цыган синти . Перевод стал итогом 25-летних трудов дома сестер милосердия Хеброн в Марбурге и миссии переводчиков «Уиклифф» («Wycliff»). По информации портала Deutsche Evangelische Allianz, перевод был представлен во время праздничной службы 13 марта в доме сестер милосердия Хеброн. Стартовый тираж издания составил 2 тыс. экземпляров. День презентации Нового Завета будет отныне ежегодно отмечаться синти как праздник. Синти (синта, синто) — одна из западных ветвей цыган. Франкоязычные синти называются мануш. Родственны группе рома, но считают себя отдельной общностью. Традиционная территория проживания синти и мануш — Германия, Франция, Австрия, Нидерланды, Бельгия, Швейцария, север Италии, Швеция. По вероисповеданию преимущественно протестанты (обычно лютеране) и католики. Говорят на различных диалектах цыганского языка с сильным лексическим влиянием языков Европы. В Германии на сегодняшний день живут около 120 тыс. синти. Библия на сегодня полностью или частично переведена на 2565 из 6900 языков, существующих на планете. В настоящее время Книгу Книг переводят еще примерно на 2 тысячи языков, большая часть этих проектов (1200) проходит при участии миссии «Уиклифф». Седмица.Ru / Древо-инфо.Ru Редакция текста от: 22.03.2011 20:00:17 |
| Всякий, ненавидящий брата своего, есть человекоубийца; а вы знаете, что никакой человекоубийца не имеет жизни вечной, в нем пребывающей. 1 Ин. 3,15 Турецкие христиане возмущены новым переводом Евангелия, который в угоду мусульманам искажает христианское учение 29.05.2012 «Альянс протестантских Церквей Турции», являющийся частью «Всемирного евангелического альянса» выразил свое возмущение по поводу опубликованного в Турции перевода Евангелия от Матфея , искажающего фундаментальные принципы Христианства , пишет портал Observatoire de la christianophobie. Евангелие было выпущено в конце прошлого года американскими протестантскими организациями «Wycliffe Bible Translators», «Summer Institute of Linguistics» и «Frontiers». Принимая во внимание «чувствительность мусульман », переводчики заменили понятия «Отец» и «Сын Божий» на «Бог» и «представитель Бога». А заключительную часть 19 стиха 28 главы («Итак идите и научите все народы, крестя их во Имя Отца, и Сына, и Святого Духа») перевели как «очищая их водой во имя Аллаха, его Мессии и его Святого Духа». Турецкие христиане сочли новое издание Евангелия извращающим христианское учение, неприемлемым и непригодным для использования и призвали провести серьезную правку текста. По мнению автора Observatoire de la christianophobie, данный «извращенный» перевод, добровольно выполненный путем интеллектуального подчинения, может послужить развитию христианофобии. «Альянс протестантских Церквей Турции» представляет большинство протестантских общин страны. В 2011 г. организация опубликовала «Доклад о нарушениях прав христиан в Турции». Несмотря на то, что Христианство в Турции имеет долгую историю, в стране насчитывается, по разным данным, от 0.1% до 0.6% христиан. Седмица.Ru / Древо-инфо.Ru Редакция текста от: 29.05.2012 16:32:39 |
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