| To be sure, the observers might not understand the entry in peaceful terms. Rulers were welcomed with similar fanfare. 7813 The palm branches (12:13; only in John) suggest a triumphal entry for a military triumph or a royal acclamation (1Macc 13:51;2Macc 10:7; 14:4); 7814 the carrying or waving of branches would also communicate triumph or royal welcome to ancient readers unfamiliar with the specific Maccabean associations known to Mediterranean Jews. 7815 We should digress at this point to note that, because such palm branches would have to be brought from Jericho and were normally used at Tabernacles, 7816 some have suggested that the original triumphal entry took place at the Feast of Tabernacles. 7817 This suggestion is not likely; the abundant details matching Passover in the traditional passion narrative (as emphasized especially by Jeremias) were hardly added simply by later writers, for whose audiences many of the connections would seem meaningless. John could have added palm branches simply to augment the symbolism of messianic acclamation; 7818 his probable audience seems familiar with palm branches to symbolize victory or triumphal entry (Rev 7:9). Otherwise his independent tradition probably focuses on and so magnifies the use of a smaller number of palm branches perhaps brought by pilgrims from the vicinity of Jericho (a region where Jesus also ministered), perhaps for constructing temporary shelters during the Passover. 7819 Whether one judges the use of palm branches likely will depend on onés prior predisposition toward the historicity of Johannine tradition, but there is in fact nothing historically implausible about the presence of palm branches if Jesus» disciples may have anticipated a sort of triumphal entry, as some gospel tradition may suggest ( Mark 10:37 ); according to both the gospel tradition ( Mark 10:46 ) and a likely route for paschal pilgrims from Galilee, Jesus and his followers had just come from the vicinity of Jericho and his followers may have brought such branches for this very purpose. |
| New persecutions followed and the Prophet of God fled to the mountain of Choreb. There Elijah experienced the presence of God as a voice of thine air (III Kings 19:11-12). Elijah was taken to Heaven on a chariot of fire (IV Kings 2:11), and gave to his disciple Elissaios his blessings to have twice the portion of God’s Grace which he himself received (IV Kings 2:9). Elijah is one of the holiest prophets and greatest personalities of the Old Testament. He never left any writings behind. His zeal to preserve the true faith in God made him well known throughout the centuries till today. In the Books of the Prophet Malachi (4:4) and the Wisdom of Sirach (48:1-15) his second coming foretells that he shall prepare the world of the coming of the Messiah. And, behold, says the Lord, I will send to you Elijah the Thesbite, before the great and glorious day of the Lord comes; who shall turn again the heart of the father to the son, and the heart of a man to his neighbour, lest I come and smite the earth grievously (Malachi 4:4). In the New Testament the Prophet Elijah appeared with Moses on Mount Tabor at Christ’s Transfiguration (Matth. 17:1-8; Mark 9:2-13; Luke 9:28-36). According to the Book of Revelation, before the Second Coming of Christ, the two Prophets Enoch and Elijah will come again and they will prophecy for three and a half years (Rev. 11:3). When they finish their testimony, the beast that ascends out of the bottomless pit will make war against them, overcome them, and kill them (Rev. 11:7). After three-and-a-half days the breath of life from God shall enter them, and they shall come back to life, and great fear shall fall upon those who killed them. They will ascend into heaven in a cloud (Rev. 11:12). In the New Testament Christ Himself used the Prophet Elijah as an example to describe the zeal of St. John, the Baptist. He will also go before Him in the spirit and power of Elijah, ‘to turn the hearts of the fathers to the children,’ and the disobedient to the wisdom of the just, to make ready a people prepared for the Lord (Luke 1:17). When our Lord was asked by His disciples: Why then do the scribes say that Elijah must come first? He replied saying: Indeed, Elijah is coming first and will restore all things. But I say to you that Elijah has come already, and they did not know him but did to him whatever they wished (Matth. 17:12). For all the prophets and the law prophesied until John. And if you are willing to receive it, he is Elijah who is to come (Matth. 11:13-14). |
| John prepares the way of Yahweh (1:23)–and hence of Jesus–and testifies of Jesus» preexistence (1:30). Jesus proves to be one greater than Moses (2:1–11). Jesus would come down from heaven more like divine Wisdom or Torah than like Moses (3:13, 31). Like Torah or Wisdom, Jesus is the bread of life (6:48). He existed as divine before Abraham existed (8:56–59). Jesus is far greater than the «gods» to whom God " s Word came at Sinai (10:33–39). Repeatedly in John the Scriptures testify to Jesus» identity and mission, but the climax of this motif appears when we learn that Isaiah spoke of Jesus when he beheld his glory in the theophany of Isa 6 ( John 12:39–41 ). Jesus is the perfect revelation of the Father (14:8–10) and shared the Father " s glory before the world existed (17:5,24). His self-revelation can induce even involuntary prostration (18:6), and confession of his deity becomes the ultimately acceptable level of faith for disciples (20:28–31). Where Jesus parallels Moses, he is greater than Moses (e.g., 9:28–29), as he is greater than Abraham and the prophets (8:52–53) or Jacob (4:12). Elsewhere, however, Jesus parallels not Moses but what Moses gave (3:14; 6:31), and even here, Moses should not get too much credit for what was «given through» (cf. 1:17) him (6:32; 7:22). Moses may have given water in the wilderness from the rock, but Jesus is the rock himself, the foundation stone of the new temple (7:37–39). How do Jesus» «signs» contribute to this high Christology (as they clearly must– 20:30–31)? Even though John has specifically selected them (21:25), most signs in the Fourth Gospel are of the same sort as found in the Synoptic tradition, which often applies them to the messianic era (Isa 35:5–6 in Matt 11/Luke 7:22). As in the Synoptics, the closest biblical parallels to Jesus» healing miracles are often the healing miracles of Elijah and Elisha. But in some other signs, John clearly intends Jesus to be greater than Moses: for his first sign he turns water to wine instead of to blood (2:1–11; cf. Rev 8:8). Later he feeds a multitude in the wilderness and, when they want to make him a prophet-king like Moses (6:15), he indicates that he is the new manna that Moses could not provide (6:32). The walking on water sign (6:19–21) probably reflects faith in Jesus» deity even in Mark. In this broader Johannine context, the healing miracles themselves may further evoke one story about Moses: people who beheld the serpent he lifted up would be healed. Yet Jesus parallels not Moses but the serpent, through which healing came directly (see 3:14, in a context addressing Wisdom, Torah, and Moses). Those who «see» him (parallel Johannine language to «believe» and «know» him) are healed. |
| Death as the means of God’s retribution manifests itself through illnesses, pain, persecution, loneliness, need, fear and being forsaken by God, and threatens life both in case of individuals and of whole societies (compare Ps 6:5-9; Ps 21:12-22; Ps 29:2-4; Ps 37; 59:3-5; 78:1-5). The Prophets could daringly declare a whole city or a whole country to be cast down into dust, although at the time of the prophecy these places were flourishing and it appeared that nothing was threatening them. This kind of prophesy was uttered by Isaiah about Zion (Isa 1:21-23) and by the prophet Amos about the house of Israel (Am 5:1-2). 1.3. In the Old Testament death is linked with the underworld, or Sheol, which is located in the bowels of the earth and is the common grave for the whole of humanity. To descend into Sheol or to be buried meant becoming a victim of the mighty power of death. And although the idea of life after death was linked to Sheol, existence in this kingdom of shadows was hopeless, because death is the result of and the punishment for sin (Gen 2, 3; Wisdom 1:13-16; 2:22-24). However at the time of the Maccabees the attitude to death changes in connection with the struggle against foreign enslavement and, for the first time in the Old Testament, in the first book of Maccabees death is portrayed as heroic (1 Macc 13:25-30). From this time onward the idea of the anticipation of the resurrection of the dead gradually develops, an idea that had been expressed already in the book of the prophet Daniel (Dan 12, 13; compare 2 Macc 7, 9, 14). It is subsequently taken up in Jewish apocalyptic writings, in the writings of the wise men of Israel (Sir 15:6; Wisdom 2:23) and in the works of scribes close to the Pharisee faction (Acts 23:8). 2. Death in the New Testament 2.1. In the New Testament Man’s death is viewed through the prism of the death on the Cross and the Resurrection of Jesus Christ. Immortality belongs only to God (1 Tim 6:16) and it is natural for people to be afraid of death (Matt 4:16; Heb 2:15). However, because God is the life-giving source of all life (Rom 4:17), death could have only appeared as the result of Man having abandoned God, which is what happened with Adam (Rom 5:15, 17-18; 1 Cor 15:22) and which is repeated in the life of every person (Rom 6:23; Heb 9:27). In this manner, death gains power over a person not only at the end of his earthly life, but reigns over him throughout his whole life. This is so-called carnal wisdom, moral or spiritual death (Rom 8:6; 1 John 3:14), because sin, which results in death and is its sting, exists in Man despite the law of God (Rom 7:9, 1 Cor 15:56; James 1:15). For this reason the Scriptures say that the Devil, from whom sin originates, was in possession of the dominion of death (Heb 2:14) and death itself is viewed as a demonic power (1 Cor 15:26-27; Rev 6:8; 20:13-14). |
| 2.2. The New Testament shows that Christ, who did not have to die, because He was without sin, stepped into the sphere of death, humbled Himself, having been obedient even unto death, the death of the Cross (Phil 2:7; 1 Cor 5:7; 1 Pet 3:18) and died for us (1 Thess 5:10; compare with Mark 10:45; Rom 5:6; Heb 2:9). By His Resurrection He conquered the Devil and death and holds the keys of Hell and death (Heb 2, 14-15; Rev 1:17-18). Then Christ had destroyed the power of death over those that believed in Him, i.e. those who were baptised into Christ (Rom 6:3-4) and died with Him for the world and for sin (Rom 7:6; Gal 6:14; Col 2:20). A Christian goes through death in Christ and is separated not from God, but from the world and from sin. The world and sin die within him, because the life of Jesus is opened to those who believe (2 Cor 4:10; 5:1-15; Col 3:3). In other words Christ grants life or raises from the dead. Moreover, this does not happen in the Last Days, but in the same instant, immediately. Everyone who entrusts himself to Christ crosses over from death to life (John 5:24) and will never see death (John 8:51-52), although the whole world already exists in a state of death (Rev 3:2) and is moving towards a second death, to eternal separation from God (Rev 20:14). Christians remain mortal, they die in the physical sense, but they die in Christ (1 Thess 4:16) or fall asleep in Him (Acts 7:60; John 11:11-14; 1 Cor 7:39; 15:6, 18; 51; 1 Thess 4:13-15). Physical death is the last enemy destroyed by Christ (1 Cor 15:26), but He gave us this victory as a potential and death itself continues to afflict the bodily life of a particular individual (Rom 8:9-11). However, it has been deprived of its sting and it cannot separate a Christian from Christ; on the contrary, it brings him closer to Christ (Rom 8:38-39; 2 Cor 5:1-10; Phil 1:20-21). He, having risen from the dead, the firstborn of the dead, calls all the faithful to a new life, resurrecting and transfiguring their bodies, and then the spirit and body will exist in perfect harmony (compare with 1 Cor 15:20; Col 1:12). |
| Interestingly, while some moralists of Jesus» day opined that it was good to allow some of one day " s provision to remain over for another day, 6015 manna was not supposed to be left over for the next day (Exod 16:19–20), because God would continue his miraculous supply as long as Israel remained in the wilderness. As in the Synoptics, Jesus offers this sign on a special occasion of need rather than desiring disciples to depend on it continually (6:26)– just as the manna stopped once natural means of providing food became available (Exod 16:35; Josh 5:12). 6016 Thus Jesus instructs the disciples to gather the food that remains, to be used later (6:12). Although miserliness was regularly condemned, 6017 ancient moralists regularly exhorted against waste and squandering, preferring frugality; this was both a Jewish view 6018 and a broader Mediterranean one. 6019 The ideal was frugality coupled with generosity toward others. 6020 Jewish teachers even instructed passersby to pick up food lying beside the roadside, which could be given to Gentiles for whom it would not prove unclean. 6021 One could argue that the bread symbolizes God " s people, on the basis of the number twelve, the term «lost» (6:12; cf. 6:27, 39 in the ensuing discourse), or other terms here like «gathering.» 6022 But the following discourse plainly applies the symbol of bread to Christ alone (6:32–35, 41, 48, 50–51, 58). That the disciples filled twelve baskets (6:13) simply underlines afresh the abundance of the miracle; there is no need to allegorize the baskets. 6023 Twelve is the maximum number that these disciples could reasonably carry. Guests who slipped out with leftover food in their baskets could be thought to be greedy, stealing the host " s food, or at best ill-mannered; remains belonged to the host. 6024 4. The Prophet-King (6:14–15) The narrative proper includes a christological climax (6:14–15), but the inadequacy of the confession will pave the way for the contrast between the Spirit and mere flesh in 6:63. Jesus» identity did include being a prophet (1:21, 25; 4:19,44; 7:40; 9:17) and a king (1:49; 12:13–15; 18:33,37), but such titles necessarily proved inadequate for him. Those who defined his prophetic and royal identity by the eschatological beliefs of their contemporaries sought a political or military leader (see introduction on Christology)–a fleshly role rather than one from the Spirit (6:63). In John " s day the emperor cult demanded earthly worship (see introduction); Jesus was a higher sort of king (cf. Rev 5:13). But in contrast to the response to Jesus in Judea, the Galilean response, which affirms him to be a prophet and a king, is at least partly correct (cf. Mark 8:29–33 ). 6025 In Galilee he is not altogether a «prophet without honor» (4:44). |
| Craig S. Keener 6. Revelatory Motifs: Knowledge, Vision, Signs GIVEN JOHN " S PERVASIVE USE of his distinctive theological vocabulary, we cannot pause to comment on various Johannine motifs every time one occurs; indeed, the careful reader familiar with the Fourth Gospel will notice such prominent motifs without a commentary " s aid. Because many of these motifs reflect Johns broader milieu, however, the commentary " s commitment to provide extrinsic context for readers means that we must address them at least in introductory fashion. Some pervasive Johannine themes presuppose a significant cultural context which cannot be redescribed under each text where one is mentioned. For this reason, a number of the Fourth Gospel " s themes and theological perspectives will be traced in the remaining two chapters of this introduction. While in the next chapter we will address Jesus» deity and some other particularly Christian themes primarily in the context of their early Christian and Jewish background, in this chapter we will examine some revelatory themes or motifs which also have a significant context in the ancient Mediterranean world. If one seeks to locate Johannine Christianity within general trajectories of early Christianity in the final five decades of the first century, one is struck by its distinctive, or better, composite nature. Yet, as noted above, the term «sectarian» applies to it in only a qualified sense, though it certainly applies in the sense in which it applied to early Christianity in genera1. John moves within a predominantly Jewish framework, like Matthew, though he emphasizes the Gentile mission less; his is likely also the Judaism of the Apocalypse, of the seven congregations portrayed as menorahs like the synagogue communities of the ancient Mediterranean world (Rev 1:12–13, 20). The Apostle John was linked with Peter in the Jewish mission ( Gal 2:7–9 ), and it is not surprising that a Gospel associated with John " s name initially circulated in such circles. |
| The New Testament presupposes the stream of Jewish worship and prayer. The Gospel of Luke records exquisite prayers by the Virgin Mary ( Lk. 1.46–55 ), the priest Zechariah ( Lk. 1.68–79 ), and the elder Simeon ( Lk. 2.29–32 ). Jesus himself, circumcised on the eighth day and presented at the Temple on the fortieth, grew up in the tradition of Jewish prayer and piety with frequent appearances at the Temple and the synagogue. He not only gave instructions on prayer but also practiced heartfelt prayer, seeking solitude in the hills where he could pray all night, not least before making important decisions ( Mk. 1.35 ; Lk. 6.12 ). The personal depth of Jesus’ prayers to God the Father breaks forth in dramatic moments of joyful confession ( Mt. 11.25 ), the giving of the Lord’s Prayer ( Mt. 6.5–13 ), the high priestly prayer to the Father ( Jn. 17 ), and the agony at Gethsemane ( Mk. 14.33–5 ), all of which exemplify the intimate relationship with God as a personal and loving Father which Jesus lived and taught. While the early church inherited much of the Jewish tradition of prayer, it gradually moved away from the Temple worship and cultic practices such as animal sacrifices, circumcision, and kosher foods, regarded as no longer compatible with the gospel. Instead, the church focused on its own rites of baptism, the Mystical Supper or Eucharist, and other rites that gradually developed into a whole tradition of worship continuously elaborated in content and structure. St. Paul, large sections of whose letters read like prayers, is a primary figure of the Christian renewal of prayer and worship in trinitarian forms based on the view that each baptized Christian is a living sacrifice to God ( Rom. 6.4, 13; 12.1 ) and the church is the body of Christ and the temple of the Holy Spirit ( 1Cor. 3.16–17; 12.12–27 ). Stirring echoes of early Christian prayers and aspects of worship, replete with Old Testament language, frequently occur in the Book of Revelation, where the eschatological drama of salvation itself is recounted from the perspective of the worship of God (Rev. 4.4–11; 5.8–14; 7.9–12; 11.15–18; 12.10–12; 15.3–4; 19.1–8). |
| The soteriology of both reflects that of early Christianity in general, but they have special nuances in common, some overlapping more with those found in other early Christian sources than others do. Jesus loves his own (Rev 1:5,3:9; John 13:1,34,15:9–10 ), holds believers» fate in his hands (Rev 1and passim; John 10:28–29 ), and declares who are genuinely his people (Rev 3:7–8; John 10 ). Jesus» death and resurrection have cosmic significance (Rev 1:18; 2:8; cf. 3:1; John 12:31; 16:11; 17:4–5 ). Jesus» blood frees his followers (Rev 1:5; 5:9; 12:11), and cleanses them (Rev 7:14, cf. 22:14; 1 John 1:7 ), and is related to a river of life ( John 19:34 ; cf. Rev 22:1). Both have references to piercing dependent on the same Zechariah testimonium (Rev 1:7; John 19:37 ). Both include the vision of God through Jesus (Rev 22:4; John 1:18; 1 John 3:6 ), although Revelation retains the apocalyptic orientation of divine vision from Judaism. The apparent elect may apostatize ( John 6:70 ; Dan in Rev 7:4–8), 1093 wrath is emphasized (Rev 6:16–17; 11:18; 14:10, 15–16; 19:15; John 3:36 ), 1094 and «death» has a spiritual orientation (Rev 2:11, 20:14; 1 John 3:14, 5:16–17 ). 1095 Both apparently transform Jesus» cross into a throne (Rev 5, 22:1; John 12:32–33; 19:2–3,15,19 ). Both works emphasize that salvation (and damnation) are available to all nations (Rev 5:9–10; 7vs. 13:7; 14:6; κσμος in John, esp. 4:42). «Repentance» (Rev 2:5; etc.) is not found in John, but appears in early Christian literature most commonly in conjunction with future eschatology (e.g., Matt 3:2; 4:17), 1096 and John implies it by other terms (his faith and decision dualisms). 1097 They also exhibit parallels in Christology. 1098 Jesus is Lord of history but subordinate to the Father. He is the beginning and the end (Rev 1:17; 2:8; 3:14; 22:13; cf. 1:8; 4vs. 17:8; John 1:1–18 ); this identifies him as deity (Isa 44:6; Rev 1:8; 21:6). He may be the Son of Man of Dan 7 (Rev 1:13, but cf. 14:14), as often in John (esp. 5:27). As in John, Revelation " s Jesus is the divine Son of God (Rev 2:18, although this may strike especially at the imperial cult). 1099 His name is significant (e.g., Rev 2:3, 3:8, 12). Jesus has a supernatural knowledge of the human heart (Rev 2:2, 9, 13, 19; 3:3, 8, 15, especially with ργα; John 2:24–25; 6:15, 64 ), searching the minds and hearts (Rev 2:23; John 2:25 ). Jesus is explicitly called creator only in the Gospel, but there acts as the agent of the Father (1:3), which does not conflict with Revelation (4:11; cf. 3:14). |
| Although tribulation is occasionally a punishment for errorists (Rev 2:22), it usually applies to believers (Rev 1:9; 2:9–10; 7:14; John 16:21, 33 ). Perseverance (Rev 2:3,19; 3:10; 13:10; 14:12) and endurance (Rev 2:3, 25), are at least implied for both. In Revelation believers are overcomes (2:7,11,17,26; 3:5,12,21; 12:11; 17:14; 21:7; cf. 11:7; 13:7; cf. «make war» in 2:16; 11:7; 12:11, 17; 17:14; 19:11, 19; 20:8); in 1 John, believers are overcomers (5:4–5) through a decided event (2:14; 4:4), the finished work of Christ (also John 16:33 ). Both documents have «descent» language (Rev 3:12; John passim) and are permeated by an overriding vertical dualism. Opened heavens signify revelation (Rev 4:1; 11:19; 19:11; cf. 3:20; 5:2–3; 15:5; 20:12; John 1:51 ). Jesus wipes away tears (Rev 7:17; 21:4; 1107 cf. John 20:15–16 ); his followers «go out» (Rev 3:12; John 10:9 ); the righteous eat eschatological food (Rev 2:7, 17; 3:20, 19; cf. John 2, 6, 21 ). The true rest (Rev 14vs. 14:11) of the eschatological Sabbath (Rev 20:2–6; 1108 cf. 1:10; 1109 John 5 ), the eschatological hour (Rev 3:3,10; 14:7, 15; 17:12; 18:10,17, 19; ; vs. Jesus» hour in John, e.g., 2:4), 1110 and the eschatological inversion of the true and false (Rev 2:9, 3:17–18; John 9:39, 41 ) are developed in different directions but found in both. The wilderness motif of the new exodus is also common to both works and seems to cover the entire period between Jesus» first and second comings (Rev 12:5–6; John 1:23; 3:14; 6:31 ; cf. 11:54). Glasson notes the wilderness parallels, and lists the tabernacle, water and light, manna (Rev 2:17; John 6:31–33 ), and palms (Rev 7:9; John 12:13 ); but he also observes that these motifs are present in John but future in Revelation. 1111 While the wilderness itself certainly refers to the present rather than the future age in Revelation (12:6,14), and his contrast between John " s past antichrist (17:12) and Revelation " s future one (Rev 13) is questionable, 1112 Glasson is not mistaken about the different orientation; as he points out, Zech 12applies to the cross in John 19:37 , but to the second coming in Rev 1:7. 1113 The two books are relatively consistent in their different orientations, despite the presence of some future es-chatology in John; but as we have argued above, these differences of orientation need not be (though could be) a decisive argument for separate authors. |
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