| Jerus., 1991; idem. Obodas the God in a Nabatean-Arabic Inscription from the Vicinity of Oboda and a Review of Other Nabatean Inscriptions//The Nabateans in the Negev/Ed. R. Rosenthal-Heginbottom. Haifa, 2003. P. 101-105; Starcky J. Petra et la Nabatene//Supplement au Dictionnaire de la Bible. P., 1966. Vol. 7. Col. 886-1017; Miller J. I. The Spice Trade of the Roman Empire, 29 B. C. to A. D. 641. Oxf., 1969; Parr P. J. The Nabataeans and North-West Arabia//Bull. of the Institute of Archaeology of the University of London. 1970. Vol. 8/9. P. 193-242; Winnett F. V., Reed W. L. Ancient Records from North Arabia. Toronto, 1970; Meshorer Y. Nabataean Coins. Jerus., 1975; Milik J. T. Origines des Nabateens//Studies in the History and Archaeology of Jordan/Ed. A. Hadidi. Amman, 1982. Vol. 1. P. 261-265; Charbel A. Matteo 2, 1-12: I Magi nella Cornice del Regno nabateo//Studia Patavina. 1985. Vol. 32. P. 81-88; Knauf E. A. Die Herkunft der Nabataer//Petra: Neue Ausgrabungen und Entdeckungen/Hrsg. M. Linder. Münch., 1986. S. 74-86; Graf D. E. Qura " Arabiyya and Provincia Arabia. P., 1988. P. 171-211; idem. Rome and the Saracens: Reassassing the Nomadic Menace. Leiden, 1989. P. 341-400; idem. The Origin of the Nabataeans//Aram. 1990. Vol. 2. P. 45-75; idem. Nabateans//ABD. Vol. 4. P. 970-973; The Documents from the Bar Kokhba Period in the Cave of Letters. Jerus., 1989. Vol. 2: Greek Papyri, with Aramaic and Nabatean signatures and subscriptions/Ed. N. Lewis; 2002. Vol. 3. [Pt. 1]: Hebrew, Aramaic and Nabatean-Aramaic Papyri/Ed. Y.Yadin, J. C. Greenfield, A. Yardeni, B. Levine; Wenning R. Das Ende des nabataischen Konigreichs//Arabia Antiqua: Hellenistic Centres around Arabia/Ed. A. Invernizzi, J.-F. Salles. R., 1993. P. 81-103; Bowersock G. W. Roman Arabia. New ed. Camb. (Mass.), 1994; Tantlevskij I. R. The Two Wicked Priests in the Qumran Commentary on Habakkuk. Kraków, 1995; idem. The Historical Background of the Qumran Commentary on Nahum//Hellenismus: Beitr. zur Erforschung von Akkulturation und politische Ordnung in den Staaten des hellenistischen Zeitalters/Hrsg. |
| Los resultados de las exploraciones realizadas en estas cortas y, en parte, dramáticas expediciones no son todavía bien conocidos. Que ocultan grandes sorpresas lo hizo notar ya el profesor W. F. Albright en las siguientes palabras: «Están a punto de revolucionar nuestros conocimientos sobre la historia de la cultura y la cronología de la Arabia meridional. Los resultados obtenidos hasta la fecha demuestran la primacía política y cultural de Saba durante los primeros siglos a partir del año 1000 antes de J.C..» De igual manera que en la época del rey Salomón se realizaron largos viajes a través del Mar Rojo hacia Arabia y África, tienen también lugar, por tierra, siguiendo las costas de dicho mar, viajes a países lejanos atravesando los desiertos de arena del Sur. Los nuevos medios de transporte para realizar tales viajes eran los camellos, que bien podrían ser designados con el nombre de «navíos del desierto.» Atraviesan por tierra distancias que antes se consideraban imposibles de cruzar. Mediante la domesticación y la cría de esos animales del desierto tuvo lugar un insospechado desarrollo de las relaciones y un gran incremento en los transportes a través de territorios áridos y extensos. Aproximadamente desde el año 1000 antes de J.C. la Arabia Meridional, que, durante tanto tiempo, estuvo en una lejanía casi fantástica, se acercó considerablemente al Mediterráneo y así entró en relación muy estrecha con otros reinos del Viejo Mundo. De la misma manera que mediante el empleo de aviones estratosféricos de los servicios transoceánicos América se ha acercado más a Europa, así sucedió entonces, aunque a distinta escala, entre la Arabia del Sur y el Viejo Mundo. Mediante penosas marchas a lomo de asno, durante meses y más meses, recorriendo diariamente pequeños trayectos de aguada a aguada, siempre expuestos a los asaltos de los bandidos, tenían que ser transportados en aquella época los tesoros por el camino del desierto a lo largo de una senda de unos 2.000 kilómetros, siguiendo la antigua ruta del incienso, en dirección Norte. Mediante el empleo de las nuevas bestias de carga empezó a fluir una corriente más amplia de mercaderías procedentes de la «Feliz Arabia.» Los nuevos transportadores eran más rápidos, casi independientes de los puntos de aprovisionamiento de agua y, por tanto, no tenían que seguir la antigua ruta en zig-zag que iba de una a otra aguada. Además, tenían una gran capacidad de carga. El camello puede llevar muchísimo más peso que el asno. |
| 87 The Battle of Uhud was fought on 23 March 625 at Mount Uhud in North-West Arabia by the Muslim community of Medina, led by Prophet Muhammad, and Quraysh forces commanded by Abu Sufyan from Mecca. The Quraysh requited for the battle of Badr won by Muslims in 624. 89 No Greek description is available but in the Arabic world the Byzantine campaign is described as a great historic event (Battle of Tabuk). Most probably, however, the armies never met. 90 Aishah, daughter of first caliph, Abu Bakr; youngest and reputedly favorite wife of Muhammad. With Muhammad when he died. 92 Buraq, winged creature, usually depicted as a horse, which Muhammad mounted and rode to Jerusalem, through seven heavens, hell, and paradise, into the presence of God, and back to earth, according to the story of his Night Journey. The name derives either from the Arabic “blaze”, “glare, “shine”; or from the Persian “bara” – “steed”. 93 Hijirath (dial. Hijir), Muhammad’s migration from Mecca to Medina. Beginning of the year in Islamic Calendar (Miladi 16/VII.622). 94 Simon Magus, magician mentioned in the New Testament and some other sources; Doctor Faustus, necromancer living in Germany in the second part of the 16 th century, his legendary biography developed during the Reformation and has since been the subject of many literary works in Europe. 95 Zeyd ibn Sabith, a major associate of and private secretary to Prophet Muhammad. He chaired a commission for the final formulation of the Quran. 99 Uthman ibn Affan (d. 656), companion of the Prophet Muhammad, third caliph in the succession of early leaders. Under his leadership, the text of the Quran was standardized, with variant collections being destroyed. 100 Blavatskaya Elena Petrovna (1831 – 1891), Russian authoress initiating the Theosophy movement. 102 State structure in Saudi Arabia is governed by the Home government act approved in 1992. Accordingly, Saudi Arabia is an absolute monarchy ruled by sons and grandsons of the first king, Abdel Aziz. Koran represents the constitution of Saudi Arabia. The law relies on Islamic law. The king is the head of state. The current ruler is Abdallah ibn Abdel Aziz al-Saud, son of the founder of this state. |
| However, largely ignored in this debate are Syria " s Christians, now facing the prospect of genocide. It is not too late to cover their plight. On June 25, the House Subcommittee on Africa, Global Health, Global Human Rights, and International Organizations, together with the Subcommittee on the Middle East and North Africa, held an important hearing entitled, " Religious Minorities in Syria: Caught in the Middle. " Presiding over the hearing, Rep. Christopher Smith said, " The al-Nusra Front, a U.S. designated foreign terrorist organization, has been blamed for much of the sectarian rhetoric and violence, but dozens of the opposition groups ascribe to Islamist or Salafist-jihadist ideologies and mingle with the Free Syrian Army – which the U.S. may now be supporting. " Dr. John Eibner, CEO of Christian Solidarity International (CSI-USA), went further than Rep. Smith, testifying that the Obama Administration has given a " green light " to Sunni countries in the region " to militarily destabilize Syria, " and that the human rights of religious minorities, especially Christians, are at risk. Eibner said, " Saudi Arabia, Qatar and Turkey may be beloved by America " s military and economic interests, but all have grave democracy deficits and cannot serve as models for religious pluralism...Saudi Arabia and Qatar are Sunni absolute monarchies. All religious minorities are banned in the former. Nearly one hundred years ago the Christian minorities were virtually eradicated in Turkey by means of genocide. Successive Turkish governments, including the current government of Prime Minister Recep Erdogan, have taken patriotic pride in genocide denial. " Christian Solidarity International has issued a " Genocide Alert " for religious minorities in Syria. It should be noted that Qatar is the financial sponsor of Al Jazeera, a channel serving as a voice for the Muslim Brotherhood that has been praised by McCain for making a " contribution " to world affairs. Eibner " s comments are not just speculation. More than a year ago, The Wall Street Journal reported that " U.S. intelligence operatives and diplomats have stepped up their contacts with Syrian rebels " and that the CIA and State Department are working with Saudi Arabia, Turkey, Qatar and " other allies " on behalf of the Free Syrian Army (FSA). |
| La canela tenía que realizar una larga peregrinación. Desde su patria, que es la China, llegaba primero a Persia y desde allí a la India, donde tomaba carta de naturaleza, y, como artículo de exportación, era recibida en la Arabia. El incienso se obtiene de una planta llamada bosvelia. Es oriunda de la Arabia y de Somalilandia, como también la commiphora myrrha, el árbol de la mirra. La cuna del áloe es la isla de Socotora, a la salida del Mar Rojo, que también le dio el nombre, pues se designa con el de aloe succotrina. En cuanto a la procedencia del bálsamo, se han suscitado varias discusiones. Aquí la Biblia parece haber sufrido una equivocación, pues los botánicos saben muy bien que la hierba del bálsamo (commiphora opobalsamum) sólo crece en la Arabia. ¿Cómo podría, pues, afirmar Ezequiel (27:17) que Judea e Israel suministrasen a Tiro «perfumes, miel, aceite y bálsamo»? Tanto los botánicos como Ezequiel tenían razón. Los primeros se habían olvidado de leer en el gran libro histórico judío de Josefo que, desde los tiempos del rey Salomón, había bálsamo en Palestina. Los arbustos se cultivaban, sobre todo, en los alrededores de Jericó. Josefo contesta también a la pregunta de cómo llegaron hasta allí. Crecieron de las semillas que se encontraron entre los regalos de especias de la reina de Saba. Esto parece una afirmación atrevida. Pero, entre tanto, se han hallado otros testimonios. Cuando los romanos entraron en Palestina, encontraron, en efecto, plantaciones de bálsamo en la llanura de Jericó. Los conquistadores consideraron en tan alto grado este raro arbusto, que mandaron ramas de él a Roma, como señal de su victoria. Treinta años después de J.C., Tito Vespasiano puso una guardia imperial en las plantaciones, para preservarlas de cualquier destrucción. Mil años después, los cruzados ya no encontraron rastro alguno de tan valioso arbusto. Los turcos los habían descuidado y así se fueron extinguiendo. El lentisco, del que Ezequiel nos habla, existe aún hoy día en Palestina. Son las lágrimas blancoamarillentas y transparentes de un arbusto llamado pistacia lentiscus. Muy apreciadas por su aroma, se utilizan también en medicina. Los niños sacrifican la propina por un par de gotas de esta goma de mascar, que los antiguos alababan porque, según ellos, reforzaba los dientes y la garganta. |
| But in the Arab world, where nothing is ever quite what it seems, there are still neighborhoods, both in Egypt and elsewhere, where Muslims and Christians co-exist. In the summer, Patriarch Ibrahim Isaac Sidrak of Alexandria, leader of Egypt’s Coptic Catholic community, publicly expressed his thanks to “our honorable Muslim compatriots who have stood by our side, as far as they could, in defending our churches and our institutions.” However, the Arab countries where Christians are not, in effect, second-class citizens are few. In Jordan, the Hashemite monarchy has long styled itself protector of the six percent (or about three hundred and fifty thousand–strong) Christian minority, and in Lebanon, despite increased antagonism from Hezbollah, the Constitution requires that the head of state be a Christian. Even so, there’s also a model to which Islamist fundamentalists can aspire, and that is the kingdom of Saudi Arabia, an almost entirely Sunni Muslim country where Islam is not just the official religion, it is the only permitted religion, and freedom of worship is an alien concept. Saudi Arabia includes, of course, the Islamic holy cities of Mecca and Medina, but the entire country is considered a “grand mosque” where the practice of any other religion, either publicly or–at least in theory–privately is forbidden. Ironically, tens of thousands of Christian Filipino guest workers live in Saudi Arabia, and are indispensible to its economy, and a great many of them find ways to worship on Sundays. Saudi religious police make sure that this considerable activity is not visible. Saudis also like to point out that their country’s Western counterpart is Vatican City, and nobody would be allowed to build a mosque there. But while Christians cannot visit the Islamic holy cities, the doors of St. Peter’s Basilica are at least open to Muslims. The catastrophe faced by Iraq’s Christians, which preceded those of the rest, has gained more attention as one of the unintended consequences of the Iraq War. Iraq also demonstrated that when it comes to sectarian violence, the Middle East can be evenhanded. Iraqi Shiites and Sunnis displayed as much brutality in fighting each other as Muslim fundamentalists did in persecuting Iraqi Christians. In 2003, following the invasion, Iraq’s Shiites, who make up about sixty percent of the Iraqi population and had not exactly been Saddam Hussein’s favorite people, began targeting Chaldean Christians, who had. It was enough that Chaldeans controlled Iraq’s liquor business, and Shiites wanted alcohol banned. |
| Photo: patriarchia.ru It is very easy for people, especially outsiders, to miss the fundamental fact about the Church. It is easy to assume that the Church is fundamentally an organization or (worse yet) a collection of clergy. That is perhaps because the Church is obviously organized (in the case of Orthodoxy, one is tempted to say, “ loosely organized”), and it does have clergy, whose dress and titles set them apart and make them very visible. But the Church is not primarily an organization, or even a holy organization, despite some external organized features, such as officers, rules, and power structure. That is, the essence of the Church is not institutional. In a recent edition of the Biblical Archaeology Review there was an article provocatively entitled “Jesus Found in Ancient Arabia”. The title is perhaps a touch misleading, because it focuses not upon Jesus Himself being found in Arabia, but upon early archaeological traces of Christian communities found there. But the title is more significant than it knows, for those communities did indeed consist of the presence of Jesus Himself in Arabia during the time when the Church flourished there. The essence of the Church consists of the presence of Jesus. Through the gatherings of Christians in Arabia, Jesus was indeed found alive and living there—and also in Thessalonica, Corinth, Rome, and Philippi. And later He turned up in Moscow, London, and New York. This is because Jesus promised to show up and be present wherever two or more of His disciples gathered together in His Name (Matthew 18:20). This is why St. Paul repeatedly referred to the Church (literally, the gathering or assembly; Greek the κκλησα/ ekklesia ) as “the body of Christ”. This description was not simply one metaphor among many (i.e. church as a household or a vine or the city of God), but the main and controlling metaphor to describe the reality of the Church. Just as one lives, is present, and works through one’s body, so Jesus lives, is present, and works through the gathering of Christians whenever they gather in His Name. That is why St. Paul makes the astonishing claim that the Church is “the fullness of Christ”, the One who “fills all in all” (Ephesians 1:23). |
| Similarly popular today is the sufism, an Islamic trend formally condemned as heretic and describing God as an impersonal power capable of absorbing and dissolving man which is, strangely enough, the ultimate goal of human being! The trend is also very popular in some intellectual circles. Let’s discuss Wahhabis. It is criticized severely and sometimes referred to as a sect though President Putin justly disproved the term. And he was absolutely right in doing so for Wahhabis is not a sect. Rather it is the purest remnant of the core Islam, and the official confession in Saudi Arabia adopting the Wahhabis version along with some other Arabic countries. This particular version of hanbali madhhab 49 tracing back to the 8 th century accepts the Quran and Sunnah 50 – the prophetic tradition – as the only sources of Islamic law, rejecting any possible change. It was founded by Muhammad ibn Abd Al-Wahhab 51 . He initiated the destruction of all sacred places in Arabia, and the removal of all decorations from the Kaaba 52 . Wahhab advocated strict observance of Sunnah, social justice for Muslims, and active jihad against the infidels. Those unwilling to reject the vestiges of paganism were condemned as unfaithful and should be suppressed. Among his followers were the Saudites, the royal family in Saudi Arabia today. They were first defeated by Turks, but regained power in the 20 th century, not without the support of Great Britain and the United States. One related trend was the murids 53 of Shamil in the Caucasus. The Shamil movement had a genetic affinity with the Arabian movement of Muhammad Wahhab. It is a revival of Old Islam, the more barbaric components in particular. To say nothing of slave-trading! Slave trade was practiced in the Islamic world until recently. Slave trade was only abolished in Islamic countries in 1980s and 1990s though actually surviving today. The main component of Wahhabis is certainly the law. Remember the Taliban 54 , a Wahhabis movement specifically controlling beard length for men over a certain age. It appeared that a man over 30 should wear a beard as long as that of Prophet Muhammad. Moreover, Wahhabis detailed human life all round. This presumably guaranteed salvation. |
| Hubal was presumed to have three daughters, the pagan goddesses Al-Lat, Al-«Uzza, and Manat. They were planetary deities, mediators before Allah or Hubal, and the cult was so widespread because the Arabic world, like mankind in general, believed that God the Creator is too distant to worship and minor deities should be found close by, more intimate, more tame if you will, to bow to and respect. In addition to the popular paganism, Arabia practiced many other religions. First, there were the powerful Judaic communities. There had been a large and strong Hebrew kingdom in Yemen shortly before Muhammad was born. St Arethas 67 and his 4299 martyrs refusing to forsake Jesus Christ had been executed by Jews in Yemen. They are remembered in prayer on 24 October old style, the eve of the Red October revolution day. It was they who witnessed Christ among the Arabs. The Hebrew kingdom was destroyed by Ethiopians for the persecution of Christians, and Jewish tribes were scattered about the paradise peninsula. As a matter of fact, the Jews knew perfectly well that many Arabic tribes, though not all, were blood descendants of Abraham and, consequently, of Shem and Ham 68 . There is a notion of a “black Arab”. Emir Khattab 69 , for one, was referred to as “the black Arab”. For Arabians, the true black Arab is a descendant of Ham. It is a discrimination of sorts like the blue and red blood. I do not know if Khattab is a classical example of the “black Arab” but the notion remains. Jews recognizing Arabs for their relations had many converted to Judaism. There were Arabian Jews and Jewish tribes. Christianity was also professed among Arabians. The Christian community with Christian bishops in Yemen may be cited as an example. Many Christians inhabited the coast of the Persian Gulf. There were Christian Arabic nomads too. Some Ghassani tribes 70 wandering at the borders of Byzantine Empire were also Christian. Regretfully, they were mostly non-Orthodox. Arabia was outside Byzantine limits, and whoever was persecuted within the Empire – heretics, Manichees, anyone perverting evangelism – took refuge in Arabia. They generated a syncretic union similar to Moscow today with its various and preposterous notions and no true conception of Christianity. So Arabs often knew Christianity in heretical form. In the Quran and various tales Muhammad often meets “Christians” arguing in the way we would never imagine. For instance, Muhammad contests the doctrine of God being Allah, and Jesus Christ and Virgin Mary as additional deities. Clearly, the Church professed nothing of the kind. Muhammad seems to know nothing of true Christianity, except by hearsay. |
| John Anthony McGuckin Islam, Orthodoxy and TIMOTHY J. BECKER Orthodoxy has existed alongside Islam since the time of Muhammad. From the 7th century to the 21st, from Arabia and Anatolia to America, the two faiths have played decisive roles in each other’s histories. From the outset, Christians were influential. Arab Christians introduced the Arabic writing used in the Qur’an and it was interactions with Ethiopian and Arab Christians in south Arabia that shaped Muhammad’s conception of what Christianity was. When Islam emerged from Arabia in 632 ce it encountered an Orthodox Byzantine Empire extending east to Armenia and south to Egypt. Within a decade, Islamic armies had gained control of the major centers of the Middle East, including such major Christian centers of learning as Damascus, Jerusalem, Antioch, Caesarea, Edessa, Ctesiphon, Dwin, and Alexandria. Much of the conquest came through negotiated terms of peace rather than physical destruction, as the cities lacked necessary defenses. The Byzantine army, unprepared for the organized Arab Muslim force, had retreated to Asia Minor. What remained was the long pilgrimage under Islamic rule of the Orthodox patriarchates of Alexandria, Jerusalem, and Antioch, and that of the Coptic Orthodox, Syrian Orthodox, Armenian Orthodox, and Assyrian Church of the East. Life for Christians under Islam was a mixed reality. As fellow monotheists and “People of the Book” (ahl al-kitab) with the Jews, they were spared the harsher persecution experienced by groups like the Zoroastrians and polytheists. However, Christians remained a subjugated people with restrictions placed on them. Though officially recognized as a “protected minority” (dhimmi) and governed by their own leaders, “protected” implied inferior and Christians had to wear distinctive clothing, refrain from public religious practice, and avoid proselytizing Muslims. Their property was subject to seizure and they were obliged to quarter Islamic soldiers. Moreover, Christians could not build new churches and were forced to pay a special head tax (al-jizyah), which was imposed in addition to land and property taxes. |
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